Child Development and Psychological Well-Being - Essay Example

1. Psychology This essay centers on examining research into the of child development, in particular, moral and behavioral and how this contributes to psychological well-being. The intention is to first summarize on article on the theme, to then produce a critical review of a research study mentioned in the article, and finally, to express personal views as a result of examining the topic material. Summary of 'How We Become Moral - The Sources of Moral Motivation, Michael Schulman (2002). Schulman contends that past theories did not examine the sources of moral motivation, rather they considered that morality developed in stages (Piaget and Kohlberg), that it had to be learned or instilled. This is not so, as young children have been shown to have morals at an early age. His theory identifies three independent sources, these being empathy, principles and moral affiliation. Defining 'moral' as "acts intended to produce kind and/or fair outcomes" he goes on to explain that a moral person acts with good intentions, and makes reference to religious or ethical tenets, sexual morality and obedience to authority. He talks of built-in redundancy, where if one source is weak, another will compensate. Here are his Three Moral Systems: Empathy is the ability to put oneself in another's place, to experience their feelings. Research cited shows links with altruism, nor will we harm those with whom we empathize. Moral Affiliations - this is where we identify with others we perceive to be 'good', children love 'goodness' in others, this is a spontaneous reaction and not taught. Principles are personal rules of conduct we set for ourselves and attempt to live up to, whether or not anyone else approves or disapproves. An example is cited of Christian rescuers during the Holocaust being motivated by one or other of these concepts. He explains next that negative emotions are associated with violating one of the three, while positive ones emerge when they are 2. employed and that different religions put emphasis in place, e.g. Judaism stresses personal principles, Christianity leans towards the affiliative domain and Hinduism goes for empathy as a tenet. Moral Pitfalls exist, how we can fail to be moral, identified as follows: 1. Yielding moral responsibilities to others -'I was just following orders.' 2. Thinking others as inherently undesirable, making people victims of moral exclusion. 3. Suppressing 'bad' thoughts, that is, not acknowledging an emotion such as anger and dealing with it. We must recognize that morality is not what we think but what we do. Hastings, Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, Usher and Bridges (2000) conducted research into how aggressive children tend to act on their impulses, in their study of the development of empathy, i.e., concern for others, in children with behavior problems. Moral Versus Antisocial Motivations Various theories explain antisocial behavior as stemming from many sources, but there is no single construct to explain all its forms. Schulman believes that it is not just about removing factors such as alienation, racism, poverty etc. to rectify the problems, but that everyone needs to take steps to address deficits. Children have consciences, appreciate goodness and are shocked by evil. By encouraging the development of the three moral motivation sources, children, society and civilization as a whole, are served, as it is morality which contributes to the survival of mankind as a species. He ends by pointing out that while people are shocked and fascinated by evil, goodness is taken for granted as how humans normally are and want to be, which gives support to his theory and more importantly, a sense of optimism. The following critical review is of the research cited by Schulman in support of his contention that behavior problems are as much due to moral motivation deficits as to unchecked antisocial activity and that those involved with children, in any capacity have a responsibility to encourage moral 3. development and try to remedy the deficits. The Development of Concern for Others in Children with Behavior Problems - Development Psychology 2000, Vol 36. No. 5, pp. 531-546. Hastings, P.D., Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, J.A., Usher, B. and Bridges, D. Hastings, Zahn-Wexler and Usher are from the Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland and Robinson, from Prevention Research Center for Family and Child Health, University of Colorado at Boulder, Bridges from Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Boulder. The work was supported by the National Health Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program. The research was carried out in America, from a major urban community. The participants comprised an initial sample of 51 male and 31 female children aged 4 - 5, then two years later, the numbers sampled were 77, of which 49 were boys and 28 girls. A further two years on, when the children were between 9 -10 years old, 72 remained in the sample, 45 boys and 27 girls. Most were Caucasian, from two-parent families and higher socioeconomic status. The sample comprised a mixture of children considered to be low, medium and high risk in terms of aggressive, antisocial and oppositional behaviors. Recruitment was via fliers to day-care centers, pre-school groups and advertisements in newspapers. The study involved observation of responses to distress simulation by adults, measurement of heart rates, and maternal reporting at pre-school stage. This was followed, two years on, with more observations, children's self-reporting on empathy, maternal reporting and teachers' reports on prosocial behavior. The third part of the study, a further two years or so later, consisted of mothers' and/or teachers' reports, completed and mailed to researchers. Variances inbuilt for the results included risk groups and sex of child. It was accepted by the researchers, from well documented and research findings, that deficits in 4. empathy and remorse are present in those with antisocial and behavior problems. No studies had thus far determined when these deficits first appear, in particular, empathy, concern for others, so this study set out to discover when this might be, and to show how matters changed as the children moved from pre-school (4 - 5 years) up to the elementary school years, (91/2 - 10 years old). They expected to find that: Observed concern for others would increase from 5 to 7 years of age; Children with high to medium risk of behavior problems would show deficits in empathy; Those with more problems would show more disregard for others and that boys would score higher in disregard than girls; There would be moderate stability in concern for others from 5 to 7 years, and consistency in the measures of concern within each age; Concern for others would moderate 'bad' behavior, acting as a protection against exacerbation over time; Cardiac measures in response to sadness and distress would link to concern for others at pre-school and age 61/2 to 7 years. Empathy would link positively to maternal reports reflecting authoritative parenting and negatively to authoritarian methods. The key results found that all pre-school children had the same level of concern for others, no matter the level of risk. By age 61/2 to 7 years, this had decreased in the children with behavior problems, observations recording this were supported by mothers' and teachers' reports. Against researchers' expectations, not all highly aggressive children showed a decrease, with 8 out of 25 either maintaining or increasing their concern for others and improving their externalizing problems of disruptive, aggressive antisocial behavior. During the second test period, low risk children did not increase their concern, possibly because from 41/2 to 7 years, responses to adult needs do not 5. change a great deal. As expected, across all levels of risk, girls showed more concern than boys, though high risk boys often had a blend of negative and positive responses to others. Also as predicted, the socialization and parenting styles of mothers impacted on all children, with those mothers using strict and punitive methods preventing the development of concern and better behaviors, while caring, warm and authoritative styles encouraged their growth. Finally, cardiac responses in this study surprised the researchers by the lack of 'significant relations' between heart rates, V and responses to depictions of distress. One of the limitations identified by researchers suggested that there was a need to broaden assessments of potential physiological correlates (hormones, EEGs, MRIs, and genetic analysis). They also suggest that the sample was possibly too small and narrow, given that the children came from an economically well-off and homogeneous group, and I would agree with that contention. The research paper provides excellent background information into the subject, with ample references and citings to support the thesis and to make further investigation readily available. It also presents a clear statement of purpose and good rationale. The research methods employed over the whole period of years, described as Time 1, Time 2 and Time 3, are well explained and easy to comprehend. Roles and responsibilities of all participants, researchers, coders, mothers, etc. are well defined. There is a lot of statistical data, figures and references to other data in the Coding section, but the results displayed are clear and concise, presenting no problems for understanding and interpreting. Tables and graphs are a valuable support to the narrative, which at times does become over-burdened by score figures, analysis and repetition, but not so much as to detract from the meaning and intrinsic value of what is being expressed. There is honesty about the findings, citing where the results did not match expectations. However, 6. extracting the relevant facts from the Discussion is not an easy or simple task. It almost feels as if this part of the paper was written somewhere different and by entirely different people, but that is a purely subjective view. The presentation of the information becomes unfocused, tends to digress and there is some repetition. Many words are used to present information which could be given in a more concise manner. (see p. 543, paras 4 - 5). With regard to the limitations identified, I agree that the sample of children was too restricted. Early in the paper, I was surprised to find that those children with physical disabilities and the less intellectually able were excluded, as indeed was a broader societal representation. While accepting that blind or partially sighted children, or those with severe learning difficulties might have had problems, amended methods could have been put in place to assist a wider range of children to take part. If after all, development of concern, conscience, altruism and morality is the desired outcome, then more needs to be done to broaden the investigation to encompass more and varied groups of children. With regard to 'further work' quoted in the conclusion, it is suggested that there is a need to determine whether disruptive children really do decrease in their abilities to feel and show concern or whether they still possess them, but decide not to use them, or use them selectively. This work could be done using the more inclusive representations mentioned above. There was a perceived need from broader assessments of potential physiological correlates, and many expert findings in the field would support the physical aspects of the origins of behavioral problems. I am not so convinced that this would serve to assist in determining deficits, or contribute greatly to a child's moral development and psychological well-being. To put oneself in the place of a disturbed or antisocial child, extensive testing and physical discomfort might only be detrimental, possibly frightening and alienating them further, singling them out as problematical or, in even in their minds, sick. Given the fact that the heart measurement testing did not actually 7. provide the expected results, perhaps my point has a little validity. The researchers believed that their assessments may have been too brief, but concluded: ' Finally, it may simply be the case that autonomic reactivity does not contribute as much to the development or concern for others as do socialization factors.....the present results do not rule out the possibility that late-maturing, biological factors could contribute to the changes in concern observed in the high-risk children.' Hastings et al (2000) I would have liked to have seen some recommendations regarding parenting skills and educational processes, designed to encourage the growth of empathy and thus help deter antisocial behaviors in the future. For example, mention could have been made of the Early Head Start Program, begun in 1995, rather than just 'parent training techniques seem promising in this regard.' (Hastings et al 2000). I recognize that much has been done since this study was carried out. As stated by Frick et al in a report in the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 'The characteristics of children with conduct problems who show callous-unemotional (CU) traits are consistent with a temperamental style associated with low emotional reactivity to aversive stimuli........This temperamental style can impair the development of the affective components on conscience.' (Blair, 1999; Frick, 1986; Frick et al., 2003; Frick, Barry et al; 2000; Kochanska, 1993) If, as the studies have found to be the case, all children possess moral motivation from a young age, in particular, empathy, then the potential exists to build on that for the child's sake and for society as a whole. In conclusion, I believe that the research findings confirm and support Schulman's moral motivation theory and agree that further studies should be carried out. They would benefit from keeping this theory in mind. References Bower, B. (1997, March 29) Conscience grown on temperamental grounds - research on development of conscience in children. Science News Iss. 13 V. 151 Retrieved April 10 2006 from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_13_V151/ai_19308354/print Crain, W. C. (1985) Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development, Chapter 7. Theories of Development (p 118 - 136). Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Frick, P.J., Cornell, A., Barry, C.T., Bodin, S.D., Dane, H.E. (2003 August) Callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in the prediction of conduct problem severity, aggression and self-report of delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Iss. 4 Retrieved April 11 2006 from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0902/is_4_31/aai_104634488/print Hastings, P.D., Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, JA., Usher, B., Bridges, D. (2000) The Development of Concern for Others in Children with Behaviour Problems. Developmental Psychology Vol.36 No. 5, p. 531 - 546 Retrieved April 10 2004 from http://www.apa.org/journals/features/dev365531.pdf Love, M., Kisker, E.E., Ross, C., Raikes, H., Constantine, J., Boller, K. et al. (2005) The Effectiveness of Early Head Start for 3-Year-Old Children and Their Parents: Lessons for Policy and Programs. Developmental Psychology Vol. 41 No. 6, p. 885-901 Retrieved April 11 2006 from http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/dev416885.pdf Schulman, M. (2002) How We Become Moral. The Sources of Moral Motivation Eds. Snyder, C. and Lopez, S. Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford Press, New York Smetana, G. Campione-Barr, N. and Yell, N., (April 2003) Children's moral and affective judgments regarding provocation and retaliation. Merritt-Palmer Quarterly Vol. 49 No. 2 p. 209-236 Retrieved 12 April 2006 from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3749/is_200304/ai_n9224477/print Smith, E. (1989) The New Moral Classroom: all over the country, schools are using new methods to teach kids old values. Psychology Today Vol. 23 No.5. Retrieved 11 April 2006 from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1175/is_n5_v23/ai_7580965/print Read More