Effects of Child Abuse on Physical and Psychological Development - Assignment Example

Effects of Child Abuse on Physical and Psychological Development al Affiliation) Effects of Child Abuse on Physical and Psychological Development Statement of the Problem Being small and vulnerable, children can be easy targets for abuse and exploitation. It is pathetic how the number of abused children has risen over the years. In the United States, child protection agencies welcomed about 3.3 million children in 2009 for suspected maltreatment and out of that, about 700,000 were confirmed as child abuse victims (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2009). The numbers provided do not include cases which go unnoticed and unreported to the proper authorities. Wisdom et al. (2012) report that child maltreatment and abuse is associated with numerous physical health conditions such as infectious diseases, pain, hypertension, asthma, heart disease, inflammation and generally, poor health of children. Springer, Sheridan, Kuo & Carnes (2003) add to the long-term consequences of child abuse possible post traumatic stress disorder (PSTD), chronic pain syndromes, chronic fatigue syndrome, eating disorders and irritable bowels. Aside from physical health consequences of child abuse, there are reported psychological effects as well. Anda et al (2005) discussed that the traumatic experiences of abused or neglected children often stays on with the victim into adulthood, and can even influence the raising of that victim’s own children. More often than not, abused children repeat the pattern with their own children. Some children may never fully recover from the trauma, resulting in lifelong depression, anxiety, and personality disorders. Other individuals may be predisposed to engage in prostitution, pornography, drug abuse, or crime (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986; Bryant & Range, 1996; Ferrara, 2002; Malinoskey-Rummell & Hansen, 1993). The long-term consequences of child maltreatment can be so devastating that it has been called "soul murder" (Shengold, 1989). These alarming facts culled from both literature and anecdotal experiences of individuals who survived child abuse merit serious consideration and investigation of the devastating effects of painful experiences in childhood in a victim’s life. In doing so, interventions to help child abuse victims overcome their negative childhood experiences may be put in place in order to prevent the serious negative outcomes that can permanently mar their personality and outlook in life. It is hoped that the provision of such interventions to such victims will help them still develop a more positive outlook and give them hope that they can still be productive, contributing citizens in society despite their painful past. It will also help them be more aware of their behaviour tendencies to stressful situations and be able to manage these appropriately so that they will not in turn inflict the same abuse towards others. The significance of this study for social work and policy making is the understanding of the background of the victims in order to address their needs so that appropriate care and empowerment and relevant policies may be planned out for them Purpose of the Study This study purports to investigate the effects of child abuse on the physical and psychological development of the victims. It will also discuss the rights of children to be protected from such abuse as mandated by legislative bodies as well as what people can do to ensure that children are well-protected from such abuse. This study intends to make readers aware of the devastating effects of child abuse, maltreatment and neglect and solicit their support in the protection of children. Research Question: What are the effects of child abuse on the physical and psychological development of children? Hypothesis: Child abuse brings about negative outcomes for the physical and psychological development of children. Literature Review: A document from the UK government entitled for Every Child Matters, Working Together to Safeguard Children (HM Government, 2006) thoroughly discusses the issue of child maltreatment in the form of abuse or neglect and what can be done to prevent it. Abuse and neglect inflict direct and/or indirect harm on the child in either physical, emotional or sexual abuse or outright neglect of the child and his or her needs. These are defined by the document as follows: “Physical abuse may involve hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning, suffocating, or otherwise causing physical harm to a child. Physical harm may also be caused when a parent or carer fabricates the symptoms of, or deliberately induces, illness in a child.” (HM Government, 2006, p.37) “Emotional abuse is the persistent emotional maltreatment of a child such as to cause severe and persistent adverse effects on the child’s emotional development. It may involve conveying to children that they are worthless or unloved, inadequate, or valued only insofar as they meet the needs of another person (HM Government, 2006, p. 38). At the same time it may also impose developmentally-inappropriate expectations on children such as those that are beyond their capabilities or hindering them from exploring or discovering their world or restricting them from social interaction due to unreasonable overprotection. It may also involve serious bullying or intimidation or direct exploitation or corruption by asking them to do things against their will. “Sexual abuse involves forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, including prostitution, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. The activities may involve physical contact, including penetrative (e.g. rape, buggery or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts. They may include non-contact activities, such as involving children in looking at, or in the production of, sexual online images, watching sexual activities, or encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways.” (HM Government, 2006, p. 38). Another form of child abuse is neglect, which is the consistent failure to meet the basic needs of the child in order to survive well. These include his or her physical and/or psychological needs which is likely to result in unfavorable outcomes affecting the child’s health and development. Examples of neglect are not feeding, clothing or housing children; not supervising children especially in high risk activities that may harm children; inability to provide access to appropriate medical care or treatment; inability to protect children from physical and emotional harm or danger; and being unresponsive to the child’s emotional needs (HM Government, 2006). For them to have a meaningful, relevant and productive childhood, their health, safety and security should be ensured. Children’s rights must be upheld and protected. This is echoed by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989) which declares that "the child, by reason of his physical and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care, including appropriate legal protection, before as well as after birth", Article 2.2 further details: States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the childs parents, legal guardians, or family members (Article 2.2, UNCRC, 1989) Despite this, so many children still get abused by adults in their own homes. It is important to remember that childhood abuse usually occurs in the context of other adverse family environment factors such as poverty, having very young and immature parents, lower cognitive ability, lower grades in school, less education and poor physical health (Springer et al, 2003). In addition, coexistence with other adverse experiences such as witnessing parental marital problems, parental substance abuse, domestic violence and overall family dysfunction may worsen the long term effects of childhood abuse. Socially, abused children develop inferiority complexes that make them become withdrawn from others and have difficulties in forming and maintaining social relationships. Those who survive sexual abuse may develop tendencies in having difficulties in intimate relationships and may be at an increased risk for re-victimization (Springer et al, 2003). In terms of studies, there is a substantial body of literature linking childhood abuse with poor educational outcomes (Springer et al, 2003). For example, Kinard (1999) found that abused children have lower grades, lower school attendance and more placements in special education programs. Eckenrode et al (1993) reported that maltreated children scored lower and had lower grades in reading and math, with neglected children scoring lower than physically or sexually abused children. Perez and Widom (1994) found that the academic and intellectual outcomes of childhood abuse persist into adulthood. Springer, et al. (2003) found that compared with non-abused adults, those who experienced childhood abuse are more likely to engage in high-risk health behaviors including smoking, alcohol and drug use, and unsafe sex. Hence, such population report an overall lower health status and use health services more than their non-abused counterparts. It is pathetic that most often, the abuser or neglector is someone known by the child (i.e. parent, relative or neighbor) and the abuse usually happens in the child’s home or child care center, places where the child views as his safe haven. (Administration for Children and Families, 2004). The serious implications of the violation of children’s rights have urged not only concerned individuals but also large organizations to actively denounce child abuse. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, requires in Article 19, that: ‘States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child’. The Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (Sedlak & Broadhurst, as cited in Kesner & Robinson, 2002) indicated that schools report more cases of child abuse and neglect than any other institution. However, the same study revealed that 84% of all suspected abuse cases in schools are never reported, making schools simultaneously the largest source of both over- and under-reporting of child abuse (Kesner & Robinson, 2002). Unfortunately, because of the reluctance of educators (Pass 1986) to report possible cases, deaths have been increasing at an alarming rate (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2004). In 2003, the total costs of child abuse and neglect were estimated at more than $94 million. These costs included demands on the health care, mental health care, law enforcement, child welfare, and judicial systems. Additionally, indirect costs included special education, juvenile delinquency programs, and adult criminality (Goldman et al. 2003). Thus, it is admonished that all school personnel should receive formal training in handling child abuse/ neglect issues including identifying, referring and reporting of suspected cases (Dombrowski et al,, 2003; Dombrowski, LeMasney, Ahia & Dickson, 2004; Dombrowski & Gischlar, 2005). They also should be knowledgeable about the law (Baxter & Beer, 1990) and district policy, if such exists. In 1998, available training programs were surveyed and results indicated a considerable variation and some uncertainty as to what must be included in the Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses on child protection. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) decided to create a training pack for such courses with the aim ‘Child protection in initial teacher training tutor pack’, given to trainee teachers as basic introductory information to prepare them for their role in protecting children from abuse. (Baginsky & Macpherson, 2005). Aside from schools taking part in ensuring child protection from abuse, several agencies in the country also collaborate to lend their services in helping abused children and dysfunctional families. Multi-agency services follow a “system of care” model. For instance, the Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families Program promote the provision of mental health services within the context of a System of Care. This means mental health and other supports become woven into a coordinated fabric of services in meeting the diverse, highly individual, and changing health, educational, and supportive needs of children and adolescents with severe emotional disturbance (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001). The system-of-care model is based on a philosophy built on three hallmark tenets. First, it believes that mental health services exist to meet the needs and preferences of the child and his family. Second, services are community-based for easy access. Third, management thrives on multi-agency partnerships that work towards meeting the needs of children while being responsive and sensitive to the cultural context and other characteristics of the people they serve (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001). Methodology In order to find answers to the research question “What are the effects of child abuse on the physical and psychological development of children?”, this study shall conduct a focus group interview with some individuals who have survived child abuse as well as some people who have helped them. A child protection agency shall be approached by the researcher to source some possible participants for this study. They may recommend some of their past wards who have grown up and moved on with their lives, some social workers who work for the agency, their consulting psychologist, doctor and anyone else on their “system of care”. Guide questions for the interview will be on hand for the researcher, but once asked, discussions shall be allowed to flow freely: 1. What are commonly identified child abuse behaviors that you have encountered/ experienced in your practice/ personal lives? 2. What are the symptoms of children who are abused and how do they manifest/conceal these? 3. How do child abuse victims cope with their reality? 4. What are the physical effects of child abuse on the victim? 5. What are the psychological effects of child abuse on the victim? 6. What can be done to appease the victim and what interventions may be done to help him or her move on? 7. How do child abuse survivors cope as they grow up to be adults? The interview method involves questioning or a discussion of issues with one or more people.  It is useful to collect data which may not be accessible through observation or questionnaires (Blaxter et al, 2006). Interviews are flexible and adaptable research tools wherein the researcher can follow up interesting or lacking responses of the participants (Robson, 2002).  Sensitively guiding the line of questioning and being able to answer any question the respondent may ask in return enhances the participation of respondents (Frey and Mertens-Oishi, 1995).  Oppenheim (1992) suggests that the response rate is higher in interviews than in questionnaires, due to the fact that participants become more involved. The audio-taped focus group discussion shall be transcribed in verbatim to be qualitatively analyzed with the backdrop of the literature review. Should there be prevailing themes that surface in the discussion, then responses of the participants will be organized according to these themes. If not, then the responses are organized according to the questions asked and analyzed qualitatively. This research shall make use of information culled from its review of literature as well as from the content of the responses collected from the participants. Krippendorff (2004) claimed that constructs researched about and analyzed may come from existing theories or practices or experts’ experience or knowledge derived from previous research. Elo & Kyngas (2008) argue that content analysis provides knowledge, new insights and representations of facts as well as a practical guide to action. In place of hypotheses associated with quantitative research, open research questions guiding the flow of the research and influencing the data are used (White and Marsh, 2006). The researcher thoroughly analyzes the data to identify concepts and patterns that may surface and contribute new information. For this study, available literature already reports data which has been gathered and analyzed by competent researchers in the field. The researcher is in a position to compare existing literature and discern which information will best answer the questions pertaining to this current research study. Expected Findings It is expected that initially, the focus group session will be quite awkward due to the sensitivity of the topic at hand. Ensuring the participants’ confidentiality in the matter and injecting some ice-breaker activities should help them be more at ease with each other. The questions are directed to everyone and they can answer from their own context. The practitioners are expected to cull their answers from their professional experiences with child abuse victims or from theories they have learned in their practice. The child abuse survivors may be hesitant to share their experiences of abuse but if the discussion is kept light and encouraging and if the other child abuse survivors in the group speak out, then they may be expected to do the same. The participants should be assured that they are not judged whatsoever as to what they will be sharing with the group. It is expected that child abuse leaves the victim with negative effects on their physical development especially if the abuse involves corporal punishment. They may still have some scars as evidence of the abuse or may have developed an illness resulting from the abuse. Psychologically, traumatic memories are likely to be remembered with much pain. Difficulty in socializing with peers, or in behaving appropriately in social situations may be reported as well as some neuroses that may have developed over the years as the outcome of the emotional battering of the victim. Sexual abuse may be the most challenging to discuss because of the sensitivity and seriousness of the “crime” done on the child. However, if a more professional and objective approach is used in the discussion, more input may be expected from the participants. Should the child abuse survivors be brave enough to share more personal feelings about the sexual abuse, then it is welcomed without judgment. The venue may be a cathartic outlet for them. Hopefully, the focus group discussion ends on a more positive note with the talk on how child abuse victims overcome their negative life experiences and turn them into positive ones to make them more productive and proactive. Discussion This study tackles a heavy issue about negative factors that may affect children’s growth and development into healthy and well-adjusted individuals. Although difficult to confront, the issue of child abuse must be studied well in order to mitigate the negative impact it may bring upon the victim. Understanding victims in the context of the abuse inflicted upon them as children pushes people to find ways to support the victims so that their lives are not totally destroyed. Although child abuse involves much violence done to hurt children, it is commendable that there are individuals and organizations willing to do their part in helping the victims stand up on their own and move on with their lives. These benefactors are after the recovery and rehabilitation of the victims so they still get a chance to live fulfilling lives in the future in spite of their painful past. References Administration for Children and Families (2004).. Chapter 5: Perpetrators. In Child maltreatment 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Anda, R. F., V. J. Felitti, J. D. Bremner, J. D. Walker, C. Whitfield, B. D. Perry, S. R. Dube, and W. H. Giles.(2005). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256(3): 174–86. Baginsky, M. & Macpherson, P. (2005) Training Teachers to Safeguard Children: Developing a Consistent Approach, Child Abuse Review Vol. 14: 317–330 (2005) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). Baxter, G. & Beer, J. (1990). Educational needs of school personnel regarding child abuse and/or neglect. Psychological Reports, 67, 15-80. Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., & Tight, M. (2006). How to research (3rd ed.). Berkshire: Open University Press. Browne, A., and Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 66-77. Bryant, S. L., & Range, L. M. (1995). Suicidality in college women who were sexually and physically abused and physically punished by parents. Violence & Victims, 10, 195-201. Child Welfare Information Gateway (2004). Child abuse and neglect fatalities: Statistics and interventions. Available at: www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/ fatality.cfm. Dombrowski, S. C, Ahia, C. E., & McQuillan, K. (2003). Protecting children through mandated child abuse reporting, The Educational Forum, 67, 76-85. Dombrowski, S. C, & Gischlar, K. L. (2005).Keeping children safe from online sexual victimization. NASP Communique, 34(2), 16-18. Dombrowski, S. C, LeMasney, J. W., Ahia, C. E., & Dickson, S. A. (2004). Protecting children from online sexual predators: Technological, legal, and psychoeducational considerations, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,55(1), 65-73. Eckenrode J, Laird M, Doris J.(1993) School performance and disciplinary problems among abused and neglected children. Developmental Psychology 29:53– 62. Elo S. & Kyngas, H. (2008) The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing 62(1), 107–115 Ferrara, F. F. (2002) Childhood sexual abuse: Developmental effects across the lifespan. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole. Frey, J. H., & Mertens-Oishi, S. (1995). How to conduct interviews by telephone and in person. London: Sage. HM Government (2006) Working Together to Safeguard Children: A guide to inter- agency working to safeguard and promote the welfare of children. Every Child Matters Change for Children. London: TSO Kesner, J. E. & Robinson, M. (2002). Teachers as mandated reporters of child maltreatment: Comparison with legal, medical, and social services reporters. Children & Schools, 24, 222-231. Kinard EM. (1999) Psychosocial resources and academic performance in abused children. Child Youth Serv Rev.;21:351–76. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Malinosky-Rummell, R., & Hansen, D. J. (1993). Long-term consequences of childhood physical abuse, Psychological Bulletin, 114, 68-79. Oppenheim, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire design: Interviewing and attitude measurement. London: Pinter. Perez CM, Widom CS. (1994) Childhood victimization and long-term intellectual and academic outcomes. Child Abuse Negligence 18:617–33. Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. Shengold, L. (1989). Soul murder: The effects childhood abuse and deprivation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Springer, K.W., Sheridan, J., Kuo, D., Carnes, M., (2003) The Long-term Health Outcomes of Childhood Abuse: An Overview and a Call to Action Journal of General Internal Medicine 18:864–870 United Nations (1989) Convention on the rights of the child. Geneva: United Nations. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001) Annual Report to Congress on the Evaluation of the Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families Program US Department of Health and Human Services Child Maltreatment (2009). Administration for Children and Families; 2010. Available at: http://www.acf. hhs.gov/programs/cb/pubs/cm09. Accessed November 20, 2012. White, M.D. and Marsh, E.E., (2006) Content Analysis: A Flexible Methodology Library Trends, Vol. 55, No. 1, Summer 2006 Widom, C.S., Czaja, S.J., Bentley, Tl & Johnson, M. S. (2012) A Prospective Investigation of Physical Health Outcomes in Abused and Neglected Children: New Findings From a 30-Year Follow-Up, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 102 (6): 1135-1144 Read More