Effects of Witnessing Domestic Violence on Child - Essay Example

DISCUSS THE IMPACT AND POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF WITNESSING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AS A CHILD. USE PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY TO EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER. Apparently, domestic violence is characterised as a pattern of undesirable behaviours involving maltreatment and aggression by a partner involved in an intimate relationship against another (Adams, 2006). In addition to that, domestic violence entails physical or sexual assault. Moreover, engaging in threats of hostility that involve intimidation toward physical assault (Beardsley, 2010) Notably, it can also include verbal abuse that is an attempt to harm another through the use of inappropriate psychological attacks (Berger, 2003). On that note, it is estimated that an alarming 41.5 per cent of women in society have been physically assaulted (Buzawa, Buzawa and Stark, 2012).Furthermore, domestic violence is not, however, just a phenomenon impacting women. Evidently, approximately 40 per cent of all domestic violence victims in the United Kingdom were men between 2004 and 2009, according to the British Crime Survey (Campbell, 2010).Notably, an international study involving a recruited sample of, 1,393 adolescents indicated that prevalence of domestic violence was an element of lifestyle. Evidently, with 67 per cent of respondents indicating experience with some form of symbolic parental aggression, in other words, symbolic aggression entails the use of vulgar language when referring to the child, disorderliness of the parent as a result of excessive consumption of alcohol among other factors. (Lepisto et al., 2011). Consequently, understanding the potential impact and effects of domestic violence on children is important as it has become a pervasive social problem. In fact, this essay seeks to highlight some of the causes of domestic violence in a bid to relate it to the growth and development of adolescents. Therefore, knowledge in this area will serve to improve the manner in which children are raised appropriately in the society On the contrary, there are compelling long-term psychological implications for victims who are harassed in an environment where domestic violence is prevalent. Fear, anxiety, depression, nightmares and even post-traumatic stress disorder are common psychological problems that occur as a result of being victimized domestically (Henslin, 2005). However, of much greater concern is the impact on children who have been witness to domestic violence. In fact, a study conducted by Adverse Childhood Experiences revealed that children who are regularly exposed to domestic violence were at a much higher risk for development of physical health issues, mental and behavioural problems, social adjustment difficulties and cognitive problems Furthermore, the implications of long-term social, behavioural, and psychological problems are of paramount interest to researchers. Apparently, this is because children represent the future of society and require protection from domestic intimidation to ensure proper adjustment into adulthood. Research did not support any short-term implications or effects of domestic violence exposure; hence, this essay will focus on the long-term issues of domestic violence and examine the potential impact and effects on children related to exposure to domestic violence. It will utilise attachment theory and social learning theory as rationalisation and justification for the complex and multifaceted long-term problems that occur in children as a result of contact with domestic violence. However, children who have experienced or witnessed domestic violence often develop fear and social inhibition as compared to children who have not experienced such violence. A common outcome of being witness to domestic violence is the development of anti-social behaviours (Adam, 2006). Anti-social disorders are classified as an all-encompassing pattern of indifference or disregard for others in society, a lack of empathy or moral conscience in regards to respecting the rights of other individuals. Behaviours common with anti-social disorders include frequent deception, a complete lack of adjustment to established social norms, aggressiveness toward others, and maintaining a lack of regret and remorse for having caused harm to another (Henslin, 2005). Notably, during early childhood, children require the establishment of a nurturing and secure base relationship with an important caregiver. If establishment of this emotional attachment is disrupted, permanent damage can be inflicted against the child’s ability to properly attach to others into adulthood, leading to development of anti-social behaviour (Fagan, 1995). Parents, especially mothers, that illustrate nurturing behaviours, most paramount during infancy, provide for a more stable and emotionally well-adjusted child that is able to regulate their emotional responses, behavioural responses, and generally have a more positive attitude about the social environment and socialisation patterns. Evidently, the attachment theory explains this phenomenon, stating that humans have an inherent need to have close proximity to care givers and receive nurturing and affectionate responses from a parent. In addition to that, attachment theory, in recent years, has been expanded from infancy to children and adults, suggesting that it is a set of relatively universal needs of all individuals in the pursuit to find security and a sense of social belonging (Rholes and Simpson, 2004). This would seem to suggest that the importance of the mother-child relationship is fundamental to establishing positive cognitive and behavioural adjustment for the child as compared to father-child relationships. Hence, attachment theory explains the prevalence of reduced or diminished self-esteem that occurs as a result of exposure to recurring domestic violence instances. In fact, Kwong et al. (2003) found that when domestic violence occurs between mother and child, it serves as a predictor for relationship violence when the victimised child progresses into adulthood and sustains intimate relationships. In addition to that, domestic violence creates a situation in which children have their basic security needs eroded, which maintains the potential to create distrust against others and fear of social interactions, hence creating problems with later childhood attachment to others. It is also well understood that repetitive exposure to violence can desensitize children to the violence, hence, damaging their sense of empathy toward others (Murray, 1995). It is worth noting that, in order to psychologically isolate the self from perceptions of harm in their environments, some children begin imitating these violent and aggressive behaviours they have witnessed. With the belief that the world surrounding them in unsafe and dangerous, the youth can develop personality traits that are inclusive of unfriendliness, cruelty and aggression which may in turn harm the normal growth of the individual.(Berger, 2003). It is a common response in an environment where there is a legitimate lack of affection for a child to develop a variety of behaviours to boost their own self-esteem or even destruction through anti-social behaviour, such as showing aggression or even destruction of property (Hitchins and Van Horn, 2005). Moreover, research has identified that women who are victims of domestic violence are often unable to manifest authority and control over their children, which also can constitute to future anti-social behaviours with the child (Jackson, 2003).Apparently, the specific reasons for mothers to lose control over their children are not necessarily relevant, only an understanding of the consequences of domestic violence on building a sense of morality and establishment of a model that dictates acceptable child behaviours is important. Children in environments were mothers are victimised by domestic violence creates an environment where neither operant conditioning nor punishment provide a foundation for a better adjusted youth. Hence, in absence of these behaviours, perhaps imposed by the insecurities and anxieties of the victimised mother, children can easily develop anti-social ideologies or otherwise manifest inappropriate behaviours in a variety of different areas. Households that maintain adequate parental child control systems lead to better adjusted children with behaviours and moral codes that dictate a more socially productive adulthood. On the same point, yet another childhood outcome of exposure to domestic violence is the development of negative cognitive distortion. In addition, poor care giver attachment occurring as a result of recurrent domestic violence creates a distorted cognitive association between love and aggression, believing that both concepts go hand in hand as a result of repetitive domestic hostility. Furthermore, this has significant impact on the ability of the individual, once entering adulthood, to maintain positive intimate relationships at the romantic level. Consequently, this can be explained through the theory of intergenerational transmission of violence. On the same note, this theory suggests that violence tends to persist throughout familial generations and children adopt these same behaviours and attitudes pertaining to the relevancy and acceptability of domestic violence against a partner (Kwong et al., 2003). Social learning theory, additionally, assists in defining the phenomenon of intergenerational transmission of violence theory. In actual fact, behaviours, during childhood, are learned through association. Evidently, this is especially true when reinforcement of these behaviours is provided by the aggressor and, or the victim, indicating a sense of acceptability and justification for violence. Moreover, this cognitive distortion is also enhanced when observed consequences of the behaviour lead to lack of reprimand for violent behaviours, a common phenomenon with women who remain in aggressive relationships (Kwong et al., 2003). Furthermore, social learning theory claims that children, who are highly open to suggestion during this period of childhood development, will emulate observed behaviours and establish their own behavioural profile as a result of these observances. Moreover, social learning theory reinforces that households, which maintain more positive and productive conflict resolution practices and which have established more effective relationship models leads to reduced emulation of these observed behaviours (Kwong et al., 2003). Family adult members, during certain periods of child development, serve as influential motivators and role models through whom children mould their own behaviours and attitudes (Gofen, 2009). On the other hand, social learning theory also supports that imitation of aggressive and hostile behaviours that have been observed in the domestic environment can occur as a result of attention and retention inherent within the child. In order to learn behaviour, the child must actively attend to the behaviours being modelled by another. In addition to that, this process can be conflicted with children that seek asylum in an effort to escape the trauma of observed violence and their individual cognitive abilities. Notably, children that sustain better attention capacity and the cognitive ability to reflect and retain what has been experienced will then, theoretically, be more prone to negative psychological or sociological problems stemming from exposure to domestic violence (Kwong et al., 2003). Evidently, not all children fit the category of imitating of violence as a result of intergenerational transmission of violence nor will all children begin adopting aggressive and hostile behaviours observed through domestic violence as a result of social learning theory. However, some children are more resilient, a phenomenon asserted by Buzawa et al. (2012), which is predicted by such factors as having a very high intelligence capability or strong interpersonal skill development within the child. In fact, to suggest that all children will be unable to cope with domestic violence observances and experiences or develop the complex psychological outcomes described would be highly irresponsible from a research perspective. If the research community is to address the potential impact and effects of domestic violence in children, then it would be conscientious to recognise that not all children will maintain negative psychological consequences when experiencing it. Adams (2006) supports this allegation, proposing that some children are left virtually unharmed emotionally and psychologically from their experiences with domestic violence which is attributed to, but not exclusive of, the child’s age at the time of the violence incidents, personality constructs within the child, or the level of observances that actually occurred during domestic violence activities. Additionally, the presence of an adult reference figure that can shelter and protect the child from emotional harm can also enhance a child being unharmed when experiencing domestic violence. The development of emotional intelligence, a method of emotional self- regulation in the child, is known to build resilience (Beardslee et al., 2010). Hence, children that sustain these inherent traits would theoretically be less predictive of negative psychological outcomes or behavioural copying of observed violence when exposed to domestic violence. It is clear that, most significant problems that occur as a result of childhood exposure to domestic violence include development of anti-social behaviours, intergenerational imitation of these violent actions, or the development of unstable behaviours that are designed to increase diminished self-esteem in the child in order to protect the self and protect the child from the trauma of violent experiences. On the same point, as identified previously, not all children will manifest these symptoms, behaviours and attitudes. However, the most common are inclusive of the implications described in this essay. Moreover, it is worth noting that, whether caused through direct intervention with domestic violence, the emotional turmoil of the experiences, or through improper parental coping and behavioural modelling that occurs with domestic violence, it is clear that the potential implications and consequences of domestic violence are of substantial concern to society. This requires continued focus to identify and combat. Bibliography Adams, C., (2006) The Consequences of Witnessing Family Violence on Children and Implications for Family Counsellors, The Family Journal AHRQ, (2013) Preventing and Mitigating the Effects of Childhood Violence and Trauma: An interview with Carl C. Bell, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved from: http://www.innovations.ahrq.gov/content.aspx?id=3382 Beardsley, W. R., Avery, M. W., Ayoub, C. C., Watts, C. L. and Lester, P., (2010) Building Resilience: The Power to Cope with Adversity. Retrieved from: http://www.zerotothree.org/maltreatment/31-1-prac-tips-beardslee.pdf Berger, K. S., (2003) The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence. 6th ed. UK: Worth Publishers Buzawa, E. S., Buzawa, C. G. and Stark, E., (2012) Responding to Domestic Violence: The Integration of Criminal Justice and Human Services. 4th ed. London: Sage Campbell, D., (2010, September 5) More than 40% of Domestic Violence Victims are Men, Report Reveals. The Guardian. Retrieved from: http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/sep/05/men-victims-domestic-violence Gofen, A., (2009) Family Capital: How First Generation Higher Education Students Break the Intergenerational Cycle. Family Relations Hitchins, D. J. and Van Horn, P., (2005) The Court’s Role in Supporting and Protecting Children Exposed to Domestic Violence. Journal of the Center for Families, Children and the Courts. Retrieved from: http://www.nycourts.gov/courts/ad4/AFC/video/DV/handout/Interviewing-Alabiso.pdf Jackson, D., (2003) Broadening Constructions of Family Violence: Mother’s Perspectives of Aggression from their Children. Child and Family Social Work Lepisto, S., Luukkaala, T. and Paavilainen, E., (2011) Witnessing and Experiencing Domestic Violence: A Descriptive Study of Adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Studies Kwong, J. M., Bartholomew, K., Henderson, A. J. Z. and Trinke, J. S., (2003) The intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Violence. Journal of Family Psychology Rholes, W. S. and Simpson, J. A., (2004) Adult Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Implications. NY; London: Guilford Press Read More