The Value of Roche's Dermatological Dimension Perspective to Understand the Meaning of Mega-Events - Essay Example

Running Head: mega-events Critically analyse the value of Roche's "dermatological dimension" perspective in helping us to understand the meaning of mega-events. [Name of the writer] [Name of the institution] Mega-events The goals f the Olympic Games are to encourage peace, harmony and to enhance a better world through sports among countries (McGeoch & Korporaal, 1994, 7). However, its economic and social impacts are also the prime concerns. This essay will focus on the benefits as well as the problems that staging the Games bring to that host country. The advantages are firstly about the enhancements f infrastructure, secondly are the potential f greater economic growth, and finally are the tremendous improvement in the national identity. On the other hand, the most serious problem faced by those countries is the massive cost f operating as well as maintaining the venues. Another disadvantage is the threat f terrorism. First and foremost, a number f studies have shown that any city bidding for the Olympic Games is normally benefited with better infrastructure including new transport systems, latest media and communication's equipments and high standard sport facilities. For example, according to Gerlin, Sydney, where the Summer Games 2000 was organised, has been left with an expanded airport, a large number f main roads upgraded, and especially new and high standard sport facilities including the gigantic Telstra Stadium ( 2005, 54). Besides, the Games usually gives the host city an incentive to transform itself that otherwise might never have been attempted (Burton, 2003, Internet). This may be illustrated by the Barcelona 1992 Games. Gerlin mentioned that before bidding for the Games, insufficient road access, airport and coastline was what this city tackled. However, the Games created opportunity for Barcelona to be financed with ambitious projects. As a result, after the Olympics, Barcelona received a noticeable new appearance such as new seafront, underground roads, and become one f the most favourite tourist destinations in Europe ( 2005, 52, 53). The second advantage is the increasing ability to obtain greater economic growth. There is little doubt that bidding cities often attract millions f tourists as well as ambitious projects f foreign investments. For example, the report f PriceWaterhouse Coopers about the business and economic benefits f the Sydney 2000 informed that the Games helped NSW earn $3 billion in business outcomes, over $6 billion from tourists spending during 2001, received more than $6 billion f investments and so on (New South Wales Department f State and Regional Development, year unknown, Internet). Such changes may create more job opportunities, increase business income, raise Government budget and encourage economic activities. In support, those benefits mentioned above may be the reason why Barcelona experienced such a significant growth that doubled every year from 1986 to 1991 (Preuss, 2004, 65). Finally, bidding for the Games is an extreme opportunity for any city and country to enhance its national pride and image due to its increases in international exposures, found out by the KPMG Peat Marwick studies (Toohey & Veal, 2000, 209). Concurrently, Preuss proved that the Games is the quickest and most effective way to show the major changes in the hosting country to the world economy. For instance, South Korea was able to replace the image f a developing country by a modern and high technology industry thanks to staging the Olympics. Another important example is the case f the Sydney Olympics 2000. Young and Rubican found that before the Games, foreigners often considered Australia as country f great source f raw material. However, after the Olympics, the image f Australia has been changed in to a "friendly, fun and trust worthy" tourist destination (Preuss, 2004, 20, 48). It should be noticed that those increases in the world's level f awareness about the host country are really important, because not only do they attract a vast number f future tourists but also bring more foreign investments to that economy. However, cost overrun, large operating and maintaining budget are the most concerning issue bringing troubles to the host country, stressed by Burton (2003, Internet). Take the case f the Summer Olympic Games 2004 in Athens, Greece, the total expenditure was so enormous that Gerlin emphasised, it even exceeded the Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) f more than 100 countries. It is also necessary to note that many f its venues built for the Games are now bringing nothing but the heavy burden f maintenance to the Government budget, accounting for $100 million per year ( 2005, 51). Another noticeable example occurred in the Montreal Games 1976, PriceWaterhouse Coopers' report pointed out that the Government invested such a huge amount f money that the Montreal's tax payers have been paying a supplementary tax on every packet f cigarettes purchased for 20 years in order to cover the extensive deficit (Abrams, 2004, 28). Moreover, Burton argued that around the last 23 years, many f the host cities, even Sydney, could not earn enough profits to cover the huge costs f staging the Olympics (2003, Internet). Furthermore, Malanga is even convinced that most f the positive economic impacts seem to be disappeared in the long term (Abrams, 2004, 28). The risk f terrorism is another rival to the Olympic Games although it does not happen frequently. Eisen, an expert in international terrorism, observed that the Olympics is a prime target for terrorists. He pointed out that the Games is where the terrorists are likely to maximize their goals since it attracts a numerous number f people and audiences ( Spangler, 2001, Internet) .Thus, if any terrorism occurs, it is possible that the losses can be too serious to be compensated by any social or economic benefits. To demonstrate, the first Olympic terrorism happened was the Munich Olympics 1972 which resulted in the death f 11 Israeli abducted athletes, a police man and five Palestine terrorists. The consequence was so disastrous that the "Olympic f joy and peace" became the "Olympic f terror" (One day in September, Video recording, 2000). Since that event and together with the 11 September 2001 attack, the Olympic terrorism's risk has become the prime concern. Moreover, it cannot be said for sure that the threat f terrorism can be prevented completely despite the extremely high degree f security applied by the host cities. On the one hand, the Olympic Games is a great opportunity for the bidding country to upgrade its infrastructure, increase sponsor investments and invite vast number f tourists. Subsequently, the nation is more likely to obtain high level f economic growth. Meanwhile, the Olympics effectively assists the host city in enhancing its image, this may also attract much more foreign investments as well as future tourists. On the other hand, it often causes a wide range f troubles to the bidding country, including the possible huge national debts resulted from the massive spending to stage the Games and the threat f terrorism. Although benefits brought by the Olympic Games seem to outweigh the problems due to its great social and economic positive impacts, any country that has the intention to stage the Games should consider carefully its ability and limitations in order not to be affected badly. Impacts f mega events The Olympic Games, as we know it, began in 1896. Since its conception, it has survived a few harsh obstacles including wars and boycotts. In the beginning, up until 1990, both the summer and winter games were held in the same year. However, after 1990, it was decided that it was in the best interest f both events that they be held on separate years. The Olympics, whether it be the winter or summer games, are held every four years respectively. The two games occur two seasonal games take place two years apart from each other, providing entertainment for the public on a more consistent basis. For example, in 1992, the Summer Games were held in Barcelona, it was not until 1994 that the winter games were held in Lillehammer. Moreover, in 1996 the Summer games were held in Atlanta. The Olympic committee was not the first to utilize this type time f separation in between sporting events. In fact, the World Cup f soccer and the European Championship developed this strategy in order to allow soccer fans to enjoy a higher brand f football on a more consistent basis. According to the author Harry H. Miller f Mega-events, Urban Boosterism and Growth Strategies (2000) states, "Hosting a major sporting event creates a huge spotlight" on the host city, and moreover, it would be ethically and economically unjust to allow one city to reap the rewards f such an event while other cities went without the benefits f it. Any major events are a result f large undertakings intended to spur local economic development by attracting tourist and media recognition for the host city. Within the past decade, developed or undeveloped cities from all over the world have become quite interested in hosting the Olympics solely because f the perception f major and positive impacts such as attracting tourist, "gaining an international profile" (Miller, 2000) and generating income. As well as the likely impacts towards environmental and socio-economical areas, host cities tend to put a great emphasis on the economic implications f the Olympics and tourism development. Although economic impact analyses prepared by or on behalf f Olympic advocates have demonstrated economic advantages from hosting the Games, "potential host communities pose the question whether or not the economic benefits f the Olympics are pragmatic and, if they are, the extent to which such benefits offset the costs" (Kasimati, 2003). Much f the published literature on the "Olympic emphasizes long-term benefits such as newly constructed event facilities and infrastructure, urban revival, enhanced international reputation, increased tourism, as well as improved public warfare, additional employment, local business opportunities and corporate relocation" (Kasimati, 2003). In contrast, there is also a high potential f negative impacts that include high construction costs f public sports infrastructures, over-crowding, property and rental increases. Procedure and Guidelines: In February 24, 2000 during the 112th International Olympic Committee (IOC) Annual meeting, the IOC developed a new bidding procedure guideline. Each candidate city is to receive a questionnaire. Through the questionnaire, the IOC will assess each cities capacity to organize the Olympic Games, the world's largest sporting event. The questionnaire includes twenty-two questions along with six themes: 1. Motivation and concept, e.g., what is your city's principle motivation and objectives for hosting the Olympic Games 2. Political and public support, e.g., are there laws or other means in your country to combat doping in sport 3. General infrastructure, e.g., what types f infrastructure are existing, planned, or would be required as a result f hosting the Games 4. Sports infrastructure, e.g., what environmental impact do you foresee by staging the Olympic Games 5. Logistics and experience, e.g., what is the existing and planned capacity f accommodation in your city 6. Financing, e.g., how would the city fund its candidature activities Source: 112th IOC Annual Report, Feb. 24, 2000. Environment, High-tech, and People Olympic concept guidelines: The former IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch introduced the Environmental Olympics concept in 1986. Designed as a standard for future Olympics host and bidding nations, these guidelines set a benchmark and challenge for other sporting and non-sporting event organizers interested in a low-impact environmental approach. Greenpeace an environmental activist group designed the guidelines; the first Olympic were these guidelines were incorporated were for the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. In 1992, Greenpeace saw an opportunity, when the Sydney 2000 bidding corporation held an "anonymous design contest for its proposed athlete's village--five winners were selected and Greenpeace eco-design was among them" (Bell, 2000). Remarkably, this was the beginning f the first Green Games concept carried through, from that period on Greenpeace and the help f other environmental groups set guidelines as a minimum requirement for future Olympic Games. Host cities should be prepared and required to into "community consultation to develop detailed guidelines for each Olympic based on the important environmental issues specific to each" (Bell, 2000). A few f the numerous principles that were to be carried through to minimize environmental impact were: Environmental Sustainability 1. Substances such as fossil fuels do not systematically increase un the esophere 2. Synthetic substances do not systematically increase in the ecosphere 3. The bases for productivity and diversity f life are not systemically depleted. 4. Resources are used fairly and efficiently in order to meet human need. Source: (Bell, 2000) In contrast, "Environmental Sustainability" guidelines dealt directly towards the issues f the physical environment were as the guidelines f "Quality f Life" affects the concern toward human geography. Three guidelines were prepared under the heading f "Quality f Life" 1. Protect open spaces in development projects to enhance urban areas, improve the microclimate f cities and reduce air pollution 2. Improve the landscape around and in the planned development by planting native trees and providing green areas and parks. 3. Design and implement attractive and convenient urban areas in which people will want to live and work. Source: (Bell, 2000) * A set f all the guidelines are displayed at that back under fig.1* The Summer f 2008 Olympics in Beijing's will be the first Olympics to carry out all three Concepts "Green", "High-tech", and "People Olympics". Beijing's Olympic Committee states that they will have the best high-tech Olympics and have latest high-tech developments from Beijing's and abroad and integrate the high-tech achievements nationwide. In doing so, Beijing's capacity in high-tech innovation will be improved and the application f high-tech achievements to production and people's life promoted. Beijing Olympic Games will be a window to display their high-tech achievements and innovative capacity. (Official Website f Beijing Organizing Committee, www.beijing-2008.org). The concept towards the "People's Olympics": Hosting an Olympic Games rises the opportunity for the host city to show off and promote their city and culture. In contrast, Beijing "will take the Games as a bridge f cultural exchanges in order to deepen the understanding and enhance the trust and friendship among the people f different countries" (Official Website f Beijing Organizing Committee, www.beijing-2008.org). To promote the Olympic Games and Olympic Movement, Beijing Organizing Committee will arrange diversified cultural and educational programs to cater to the needs f the people, especially the younger generation, for spiritual and cultural activities. References Abrams, S.L. (2004) 'Greece: A downgrade after the Olympics' IDD August 16th Answers.com ( 2006), ' Online dictionary, encyclopedia and much more' http://www.answers.com/olympic%20games (accessed 26/03/2006) Burton, R. (2003), ' Olympic Games host city marketing: An exploration f expectation and outcomes' http://www.premiership.com.au/pdf/Olympic%20Games%20Host%20City%20Marketing.pdf (accessed 26/03/2006) Gerlin, J. (2005), 'Why back the bid' Times, 11 July McGeoch, R. & Korporaal, G. (1994) Bid : How Australia won the 2000 Games William Heinemann Australia : Melbourne New South Wales Department f State and Regional Development (year unknown) 'Business and economic benefits f the Sydney 2000 Olympics: a collation f evidence' http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/facts.aspcid=309 (accessed 14/04/2006) One day in September (Video recording, 2000) Magna Pacific: Australia Preuss, H. (2004) The economics f staging the Olympics: A comparison f the Games 1972-2008 Edward Elgar: Cheltenham Spangler, J. ( 2001) ' Meeting the threat: Olympics are a draw for extremists seeking glory' http://deseretnews.com/dn/sview/1,3329,320006966,00.html (accessed 24/04/06) Tomlinson, A. & Young, C. ( 2006), National identity and global sport events: Culture, politics, and spectacle in the Olympics and football World Cup State university f New York press: Albany Toohey, K. & Veal, A.J. ( 2000) The Olympic Games: A social science perspective CABI Publishing: Wallingford Read More