Policy Choices - Individuals Motivation and Collective Action - Essay Example

Titus Rock Manickam Order No. 189760 09 December 2007 Policy Choices One of the ways an individual makes progress is by manipulating or maneuvering to the degree his strategy and intelligence allow him. This is the strategy of self interest. In contrast, the issue of public interest is less prone to impulsive actions or reactions and is based on analytical thinking and facts. Self interest and public interest function on their own parameters. By self-interest an individual seeks his or her own advancement. Public spirit is the pursuit of the good of all. 1.1 The role of self-interest and public-interest (or altruism) in the authors' construct of individual's motivation and collective action. The one big difference between self interest and public interest is the power that the latter enjoys. Public interest has more weight and the benefit of numbers. In the real sense, public interests concern all. In fact, in its highest form, public interest seeks the maximum good of the maximum numbers. Coming to an individual, what are the factors that influence actions of self interest Basically, individuals are goal oriented, and as such, they depend on their skills and resource to achieve their goals. Also, in order to achieve his goals, an individual may look for information, evaluate alternatives, and choose the ideal option. In the absence of these, there is manipulation due to lack of information and ignorance. There are also other factors involved in the process of decision making. "The rational ideal not only overstates the purity of information, it also exaggerates the rationality of the people using information. That humans do not make decisions in purely rational fashion is a point that needs no belaboring." [1] This is what Charles Lindblom has called "the preceptoral system," whereby "a system of social control is exercised by a highly unilateral governmental persuasion addressed not to an elite or to a bureaucracy alone but to an entire population" [2] "While the individual in the rational ideal is autonomous, free to deliberate and choose on the basis of accurate information, in the preceptoral system the individual is a puppet whose mind has been invaded by others and who acts as though he or she chooses voluntarily but is in fact directed from without." [3] The practice of restriction or suppression of information is not only confined to totalitarian regimes, it is also practiced in the highly scientific corridors of medical research, mega business houses, the media, law agencies, political parties, and at the highest levels of the proponents of free society. [4] Nonetheless, public-interest is the result of experience and proper understanding of what the problem is and how the solution could be achieved with minimum confusion and confrontation. It involves public debate and perception, and allows for discussion and information based solutions, instead of leaving it to the discretion of a single individual. "The rational ideal, in sum, offers a vision of society where conflict is temporary and unnecessary, where force is replaced by discussion, and where individual actions are 1Policy Paradox, p314. 2Policy Paradox, Chapter 13, page 316. 3Policy Paradox, p308. 4Why Public Ideas Matter Chapter 2, page 31 brought into harmony through the persuasive power of logic and evidence. Government by persuasion brings out the highest human quality - the capacity to deliberate." [5] However, the decision making process often tend to be long and tedious on issues related to public interest. That is why sometimes it is felt that that there is the need for some element of totalitarianism in government. That is to say, it is not always necessary for government to be of the totalitarian type in order to use persuasion. "Let us for the moment, however, not make totalitarian government a necessary condition for indoctrination and so not limit indoctrination to totalitarian regimes by definition. Instead, let us regard it as a relationship in which dominant elites control people's beliefs and knowledge in a manipulative and self-interested way. Then it becomes possible to see how indoctrination can happen in non-totalitarian societies." [6] Not that persuasion and information based decisions are totally foolproof. There are times when policies advocating public interests are also susceptible to manipulation. "For any policy based on persuasion, such as public information campaigns, disclosure rules, or education, how do we know whether it represents enhancement of rational deliberations or manipulation of behavior When does information become propaganda and education brainwashing Are ideas always rationalization of self-interest" It is not possible to clearly define the boundary between the two types of persuasion, that is, the persuasion based on reasons and the persuasion based on compulsion and force. "The short answer is that the boundary between the two sides of persuasion is blurry. As with inducement and rules, underlying the abstract model of how persuasion works in 5 Policy Paradox, p306. 6 (Policy Paradox, p315. either the light or dark version is a complex social reality. Between the two idealized models of persuasion lies the vast terrain of influence." [7] In Stone's view, "Information and knowledge obviate the need for force because they can resolve conflict. (The pen is mightier than the sword)."[8] In order to understand Stone's viewpoint, it is necessary to understand the individual's role in public interest. Who are these individual's How are they connected to policies and issues of public importance Obviously, these are individuals possessing the required clout to make their presence felt in the corridors of power. "These are the "middle-men at the interfaces of various groups" who have access to information, ideas and positions outside the normal run of organizational actors and have been able to package and promote policy innovations." As Heclo put it, "the importance of policy middlemen sprung not from any unique powers of abstract thought, but from sensitivity to the changes going on around them and access to powerful institutions." [9] 1.2 Why and how the concept of individual motivation is relevant and important to a "policy science of democracy" Policy science not only attends to public interest but also takes note of valid self interests of individuals and groups. Business is the best forum where individual motivation is made use of. "Business assures acceptance of its dominant position in controlling the 7 Policy Paradox, p309. 8 Policy Paradox, p306 9 Colin J Bennet and Michael Howlett, The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling theories of policy learning and policy change, p279. economy and the government not through any central committee of the business elite, but through its influence over public education and mass media, and its superior organizational and financial resources. For example, in the early part of the century, the newly emerging electrical utility industry promoted itself by supplying schools and libraries with materials on "the wonders of electricity and the romance of the kilowatt," by offering stipends to teachers, and by pressurizing textbook companies." [10] 1.3 How would Stone criticize Kelman's view on the role of ideas in the policy process How would Kelman criticize Stone's view on the role of ideas in the policy process According to Stone, public spirit is the reflection of individual motivation for what is sought to be done in the best interests of everyone. The fruits of the individual motivation and labor are shared by all, irrespective of the individual's efforts in getting the legislation passed. In the words of Steven Kelman, "Public-spirited behavior shows concern for others, not just oneself." The phenomenon of public choice came as a result of "converts from the ranks of political scientists in a world where not very many people have very much bad to say about people who have very little good to say about the way the political process works." [11] Thus, one has to come back to the same trend that calls for the potential to create monopoly interest groups, such as the government bureaucrats, who control extensive public services. After all, what is the difference between a self-seeking individual and a 10 Policy Paradox, p316. 11 Why Public Ideas Matter Chapter 2, page 35 government bureaucrat Is not the bureaucrat the provider of important public services Kelman agrees that "self-interest plays an enormous role in motivating people , because creatures who do not take a healthy interest in their own survival and prosperity simply fail to survive and reproduce as well as those who do." Apart from the bureaucrats, there are also the well-organized wealthy business class, trade unions, and other groups who have the power and the wherewithal to safeguard and pursue their own interests, even at the cost of curtailing healthy competition. [12] Simultaneously, actions on behalf of others could be a motivating factor. People need each other for material and psychological needs. People also need recognition and appreciation for their efforts and achievements. This is another motivating factor. There is one intriguing question, by the way. Why do people vote What difference does on miniscule vote offer among millions Yet countless people vote and elect their representatives. Is it because they empathize with a particular party or candidate Or do they consider voting an ethical obligation [13] Public spirit seems the most likely answer. There is a substantial correlation between voting behavior and a voter's view of the economic conditions in society as a whole, even if the situation has not personally benefited him. It is an indication of the voter's verdict of the economic condition as a whole. [14] 12Why Public Ideas Matter Chapter 2, page 43 13Why Public Ideas Matter Chapter 2, page 44 14 Practical Solutions HR: Human Resource Consulting Services, www.bpracticalsolutions.com/website/index.htm According to Kelman, Stone's perception of self-interest is devoid of well established axiom of "the maximum good of the maximum number." Public interest is paramount. It is the public that deserve the benefits of information and knowledge. We have seen the effects of the information technology on free society and the pluralistic regimes and the superiority of the free regime in reaping the benefits on almost every account. Governments which have shown greater sensitivity to public interest have better economy, they have been able to improve governance, improve the standard of living, and even educate its people on the important issues of human rights and social concerns, and above all, gain more mileage from its global diaspora through foreign exchange. 2.1 Who learns, what is learned, and the impact of learning on policy. The first line of learner is naturally self-interest individuals and groups. These are basically the individual and groups who have connections at the right places. In this type of learning, fundamental policies are modified to suit new social concern or to serve as solutions by reasoning with the help of established principles and policies. According to Heclo, this is "classic conditioning." The second type of learning is the "instrumental conditioning" where there are uncertainties and "what one learns depend on what one does." In this situation, one has to go by past experience to confidently make choices. Informed decisions made through policy learning and policy changes effected by information and knowledge is the key to public interest and organizational adaptation. Social pressures effected by social forces and social conflicts are responsible for public bureaucracies to act and react on issues of public interest. As Heclo pointed out, "politics is all about conflict and power." In this scenario, the role of middlemen within the interest group does exist and cannot be wished away or ruled out. Within the state setup and bureaucracy, there exists the need for an "agency of learning." Etheredge has identified the bureaucracy at the senior level as also the junior level as the agents of learning. In essence, government learning is bureaucracy learning. [15] Learning is basically by information. Information by itself cannot change, influence or evaluate. It is the conditions in which the source of information is gathered and catalyzed by the individual, the way it is processed and used, and the returns the individual enjoys from its usage, which has set the information technology apart and has made it such a powerful industry. Richard Rose vividly illustrates the concept of "lesson-drawing" which scans through programs and policies followed in different countries, emulated by others, their degree of success or failures in the country of origin and others that followed, the positive and negative results, the reasons for success or failure, and ultimately, the way it could be used in its original or modified form for the host country. [16] The issue of lesson-drawing is one part of the big picture. These are days of mega projects, big governments and large corporations. Lesson-drawing is not treated as a flash-in-the-pan, one-time event. Rather it has become a routine affair. The management of a nation is not limited to lesson-drawing. There are other issues of critical importance such as health care, education, social security, national security, environment, pollution, and many more. [17] 15 Colin J Bennet and Michael Howlett, The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling theories of Policy Learning and Policy Change, page 275 16 Colin J Bennet and Michael Howlett, The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling theories of Policy Learning and Policy Change, page 277. 17 Richard Rose, What is Lesson-Drawing page 11. 2.2 An intellectual solution is not necessarily a practical solution Normally, it is wise to depend on experience when making long term policy decision. A well tested practical solution is preferable to an intellectual solution for the simple reason the ground situation may not be amenable to an intellectual approach. Policy makers are not in favor of solutions to a problem that has never faced the litmus tested before. The benefits of experience goes a long way in facing a problem with confidence if such problem had arisen in the past and handled capably. Practical solutions based on hands-on experience to be more dependable and effect in the long run. There is a better understanding of the problem due to which solutions are easier to find by those who have the know how to deal in a cost effectively and timely manner. Information and knowledge have the potential to work out solutions and overcome impediments, provided the atmosphere it conducive. A totalitarian regime restricts individual freedom. However, the full flow of unfettered information has tremendous potential to educate on a mass scale, is beneficial to everybody, and leaves something by way of an encouraging incentive to the resourceful individual. Where people have substantial personal interests at stake, and where some clear government policy will affect those interests, self-interest is likely to have a greater influence on the political behavior of individuals. For instance, tax policy and government benefit schemes, such as road constructions and water supply. It is not enough to form good policies alone. Along with policies there is also the need to establish proper procedures and incentives to encourage innovations. The axiom that propounds that one good turn deserves another change the behavior of self-interested individuals. Consideration of public interest restrains self-interests and encourages a broader approach. Individual motivations and approach must be open to scrutiny in public interest. It must be nurtured and encouraged to bring out the best in a person for the good of all. It is then that both the individual and the public come to the point of a win-win situation. 2.3 How the concepts of synchronic and diachronic changes in knowledge are related to changes in a policy community. As individuals, policymakers have more or less specialized knowledge derived from contacts that cut across institutional and geographical boundaries, and this is particularly true of public officials whose positions depends upon expertise. Professional interests and associations bring together experts who work in many different types of institutions; thus, economists are likely to know other economists working in universities, government, the private sector, non-profit institutions, and often in intergovernmental or international organizations. Changes, whenever and wherever they take place, have to be incorporated amidst the ground realities of power and conflict. They have to be implemented within the existing structure that has the authority to oversee them in their community. [18] "Subjective identification is more important than geographical propinquity in directing search. Neighbors are not necessarily friends. Australia will not turn to a poor neighbor for ideas but to Britain or the United States. [19] 18 (Colin J. Bennett & Michael Howlett, The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling theories of policy learning and policy change, p290). 19 Richard Rose, What is Lesson Drawing p17. The process of change begins with epistemic communities poring over techniques and policies followed in different countries in problem solving. The techniques and policies that appear relevant to the local situations are then short-listed and evaluated. The policies that have positive effects are selected for local applications, whereas those that have had adverse results are examined to find out the reason for their failure. Sabatier has vividly defined the elements of policy-oriented learning which improves one's understanding of the state of variables, refines one's understanding of logical and causal relationship central to the core issue, and identifying and responding to the challenges of one's belief system. [20] Fresh lessons are to be learnt and there are sources from the world over of governments successfully implementing policies that other countries might seek to emulate. Lessons are learnt from one's own experience as also from others. Policies drawn from experience of others have to be carefully and selectively applied because they have to be applied in a way that is clearly understood depending upon the prevailing circumstances in the local environment. Also, countries from where lessons are being drawn cannot be expected to be dealing with problems and situations similar to the host country. However, the choice of the countries could be short-listed. For instance, for a country like India, it is better 20Colin J Bennet and Michael Howlett, The Lessons of Learning: Reconciling theories of Policy Learning and Policy Change, page 284 to observe and apply policy changes from countries like China, South Korea, Singapore, than those implemented in England or Australia. Nevertheless, whatever the country of origin, the applications begin by the trial and error method in view of the diversities in the situations and culture of both the countries. [21] 21 Richard Rose, What is Lesson Drawing pages 7 and 8. Sources 1. Deborah Stone, Policy Paradox (Paperback), W.W. Norton & Company, 2002. Chapter 13 (Facts) 2. Kelman, Steven (1985). Why Public Ideas Matter. In Robert Reich, Ed., The Power of Public Ideas. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Co., 31-53. 3. Bennett, Colin and Michael Howlett (1992). The Lessons of Learning Policy Sciences, 25, pp. 275-294 4. Rose, Richard (1991). What is Lesson Drawing Journal of Public Policy, 11 (1), pp. 3-30. 5. Practical Solutions HR: Human Resource Consulting Services, www.bpracticalsolutions.com/website/index.htm, 13 November 2007). Read More