Modernisation and Development Theories - Essay Example

Josefina V. Gabuya Department of Applied Social Sciences BSc Media Studies SM3033n Globalisation and The Mass Media 13 August 2008 Globalization and Mass Media (Mass Media Relations) Answers to 2007/08 Re-Assessment Essay Questions 1. Outline and critically evaluate modernisation and development theories. Include in your answer a discussion of whether the application of these theoretical approaches reduced or increased international inequalities and indebtedness of poorer countries and why. Development or modernization was defined as " the process of change toward those types of social, economic and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have thus spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian and African continents * (Eisenstadt 1). Different theorists and practitioners of development differed in their emphasis, but they all agreed that rapid economic growth is the strategy of modernization. Moore argued, "what is involved in modernization is a 'total' transformation of a traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology and associated social organization that characterize the 'advanced' economically prosperous, and relatively politically stable nations of the western world" (89). The leaders of new states in the Third World objected to how the existing international order had seemingly neglected their interests. Thus, they formed pressure groups, such as the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961 and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964, to promote an independent path between the interests of the communist and capitalist world and to win some reforms in the international economy, respectively. From the 1950s to 1970s, the major strategy used in the Third World was import-substitution, which involved the development of a domestic industrial sector, with the long-term aim of capturing lucrative export markets. The state had to protect new producers from competition from cheaper foreign imports, through high tariffs or import controls, and initial investments were poured into consumer goods industries. (Kiely 29; ch. 1). State planning became the basis for post-war development in order to raise productivity and output of both the industrial, and the agricultural sectors. In this regard, many Third World countries, such as Mexico, the Philippines and India actively implemented the strategy of introducing a technological package starting in the 1950s and onward, with the support of American pro-development institutions, like the Rockefeller Foundation. By the late 1960s, however, the Third World's dream of a better life was shattered. Official measures of development, such as Gross National Product (GNP), failed to show the distribution of such income within a country or whether people's basic needs are provided (Kiely 29: ch. 1). A revised development strategy based on the ideas of 'redistribution and growth' and 'basic needs' was introduced by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1972 and the World Bank in 1973, respectively. The World Bank focused on increasing the productivity of the small farmer to stimulate economic growth and eliminate rural poverty, while the ILO concentrated on developing "appropriate labour-intensive technologies" (Kiely 30: ch. 1). However, these strategies failed because only a few states in the Third World had been concerned about alleviating the sufferings of the poor. Also, transnational companies/local capitalist enterprises that had invested their money in the Third World were more concerned about getting high rates of returns on investments (ROI) than in providing more employment opportunities. The debt crisis in the early 1980s ushered the neo-liberal 'counter revolution', "The Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates was effectively abandoned between 1971 and 1973," (Kiely 30: ch. 1; Brett 111-25) and had no successful replacement, with the devaluation of the dollar against the price of gold and the US' introduction of a system of floating exchange rate in the world economy. Neo-liberal theory contends: "orthodox state-led development, and in particular import-substitution industrialization (ISI), is inefficientNeo-liberals argue that ISI was not a sustainable strategy for Third World developers because it encouraged the growth of inefficient, expensive activity and discouraged traditional wealth-creating activity such as farming" (Kiely 31: ch. 1). Thus, many Third World nations were importing in the early 1980s, instead of exporting. To solve these problems, the neo-liberals recommended three key policy proposals: (1) currency devaluation, which makes exports cheaper on the world market, and makes imports more expensive; (2) rolling back the state, which reduces state economic activity such as planning, and promotes 'unhindered market forces' as the best route to development; and (3) liberalization of international trade, which abolishes import controls, and reduces tariff rates, thereby forcing firms to be efficient as they compete with foreign producers (Kiely 32). In sum, neo-liberalism recommends that market forces should operate unimpeded by inefficient regulations. In this sense, each country produces those goods that they can produce cheaply and efficiently. The structural adjustment (designed to promote long-term economic development) and stabilization programmes (designed to ease short-term balance-of-payments deficits) that many governments (with IMF and World Bank advice) introduced had been strongly influenced by neo-liberal theory. The impact of adjustment had varied across Third World countries, which have long and complex negotiations with the World Bank. This impact, however, had somehow failed because of the weak theoretical basis of neo-liberal theory, which is excessively optimistic about the role of market forces in promoting development (Kiely 33). Third World producers could hardly break into new markets because their established products were not enough to enable them to compete with the First World on an equal basis. Also, unequal competition within as well as between the developing and the developed countries exists. Thus, many industrializing countries in East Asia have supported state protection of new industries. The neo-liberal era of development has not only failed but also made things worse. The promises of development, in whatever form, have not been realized (Kiely 33-34). The early development economic theories had assumed a mechanistic and fragmentary notion of development, which is brought about by technological innovations and by certain mechanisms that speed up the savings/investment equation (Escobar 83). In relation to this, neo-liberal theory as well as other development approaches that were implemented in poorer countries, have failed to alleviate poverty and have forced marginalized sectors of the society to engage in insecure and criminal activity, as a means of livelihood. These approaches to development have also caused environmental destruction, exploitation, state oppression and impoverishment. Also, many people who have been integrated into the global economy, have become greatly vulnerable to the adverse effects of these approaches, which have worsened in recent years when global market forces were introduced as replacement to the failures of state-led development. 2. Examine and discuss the reasons why some countries want the WTO to have a framework for global liberalisation of cultural products. Include in your answer a discussion of how such liberalisation might impact any country of your choice. Cultural products, like films and music, are protected by intellectual property rights, which might be threatened by the absence of a framework for global liberalisation of cultural products, as some countries have thought. Thus, some countries want the WTO to establish this framework and stabilize all markets, including the electronic markets, where technology, information and know-how are widely and instantly shared by both developing and developed countries around the globe. They see the need for an agreed framework for global liberalization of electronic products at the international level, to manage and regulate relations between governments and the right to trade internationally. The existence of rules that provide guaranteed rights of market access and non-discrimination, and which includes a commitment to ongoing liberalization, will benefit electronic commerce, which is another way of buying and selling goods and services. In Egypt, the liberalisation of its telecommunications sector has helped the government in attracting foreign investment and supporting the local private and government sectors (Hassanin 148). However, the average Egyptian is just one of its beneficiaries, since it is pressured by the global market to make the price structure for certain services (international calls and broadband internet) more competitive. Among the ten licensed telecommunications service providers in Egypt (Telecom Egypt, the government operator, which provides traditional, fixed landline services; 3 GSM (mobile) operators; 2 payphone operators; and 4 low earth orbital systems operators), "Telecom Egypt has two liberalisation scenarios for international calls: either to offer two new public tenders or to offer an international licence (sic) to the three mobile carriers" (Hassanin 149). Telecom Egypt is confronted by a challenge in maintaining and expanding its profit level after liberalization, when it will be managed in such a way that it will surpass its competitors. While Egypt's liberalisation process is running relatively smoothly; its publication and public participation processes are in disarray. In this regard, Egypt's liberalization process must not only involve the liberalisation of services and technical applications but also the "liberalisation" of expression and on the inclusion of public involvement in the decision- and policy-making processes in the sector (Hassanin 152). 3. Analyse the reasons for the unequal international flow in any one communications sector (News, Audio Visual). Include in your answer some reflection on the views of a country or region regarding this sector e.g. Why are some countries or regions so concerned about news The absence of an equal exchange of ideas and information in the global news environment, creates an information gap. Some harsh imbalances has always characterized the international news agency market ever since it started, owing to its historical, political and economic realities. "These imbalances between the North and South gave rise to the famous NWICO-debates fuelled by the non-aligned movement (NAM) in the mid 1970s and eventually to the establishment of the so-called alternative voices like IPS, Gemini, NANAP, PANA" (Joye 4). The imbalances are not merely restricted to a question of size or 'material' parameters but also to an important symbolic dimension. There are twelve factors, which define the intrinsic value of an event (Joye 5), which could be the reason why Western news agencies do not consider information coming from developing countries as newsworthy. "Media coverage is focusing on spectacular events, elite persons, hard facts, violence and conflict, the so-called 'spot' news" (Joye 5). Because of Western information dominance, developing countries suffer from an inadequate, negative, and stereotypical portrayal. To help create a better balance and flow of communications, alternative agencies like IPS, with its unbiased and in-depth journalism, provide an alternative basis or framework for news selection that focuses on processes rather than on "spot news". 4. Discuss and critically evaluate theories of dependency and cultural imperialism. Raul Prebish, Director of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, initiated the development of Dependency Theory in the late 1950s, which was viewed as a possible way of explaining the persistent poverty of the poorer countries. "Dependency theory attempts to explain the present underdeveloped state of many nations in the world by examining the patterns of interactions among nations and by arguing that inequality among nations is an intrinsic part of those interactions" (Ferraro 2-3). Most dependency theorists, like Andre Gunder Frank, regard international capitalism as the motive force behind dependency relationships (Ferraro 3). This view suggests that the capitalist system has enforced a rigid international division of labor that ushers the underdevelopment of many areas of the world. Underdevelopment is "a wholly negative condition which offers no possibility of sustained and autonomous economic activity in a dependent statethe central characteristic of the global economy is the persistence of poverty throughout the entire modern period in virtually the same areas of the world, regardless of what state was in control" (Ferraro 4). Critics to dependent theory observed that it placed too much emphasis on material and economic factors . The development of many Asian economies along capitalistic, open lines, is an empirical contradiction to dependency theory. "Herbert Schiller set the first standard of the term cultural imperialism defining the phenomenon as the way in which major multinational corporations, including the media, of developed countries dominate developing countries" (Rauschenberger 8). Cultural imperialism has also been applied to explain phenomenon in other fields such as international relations, education, sciences, history, literature, and sports. For dependency theorists, cultural imperialism is the pressure put on one society to adopt the culture, values, and lifestyle of another (Rauschenberger 9). "Media plays a central role in creating and transmitting the dominant culture to the developing society" (Rauschenberger 10). In relation to this, cultural imperialist thinking assumes that transnational media organizations determine how people interpret information about culture. This explains why American culture, which is not necessarily good, is popular worldwide because it has the power and money to do so. Dependency theorists' concepts of a strictly passive audience and claims that American pop culture is spawning cultural synchronization and homogenization are problematic (Rauschenberger 18). They often aimed their complaints at American products themselves and the values and lifestyles they encourage. Although some aspects of American culture are adopted, others are found irrelevant and are resisted. A study conducted by Ronald Inglehart and Wayne Baker of the University of Michigan, on the extent of cultural change in societies undergoing modernization and industrialization "produced evidence of both 'massive cultural change' and the 'persistence of distinctive cultural traditions'while capitalism has become virtually a universal way of life, factors within respective civilizations continue to structure the organization of those societies.These studies support free-market theorists' argument that cultural integration, not dependency, is occurring within societies abroad" (Rauschenberger 18-19). 5. Outline and critically evaluate theories of globalisation in communications. "The dynamics of globalization, responding to the organization of capital investment, the play of financial and monetary forces, and market opportunity, and representing a fundamental transnationalizing trend in the organization of business and of financial resources, has been the subject of debate and speculation for several decades. Its evolution and deepening proceeded throughout the period of East/West rivalry, and in many respects, overshadowed the ideological competition between capitalism and socialism" (Falk 173). "Several scholars, including Anthony Giddens, David Harvey, Roland Robertson, Emanuel Wallerstein, and Malcom Waters, have recently developed theories of globalization. This body of work builds upon and extends the earlier theories of Marshall McLuhan (1967), Harold Innis (1950, 1951), and before them, Lewis Mumford ((see Carey's 1981 analysis of the foundations of modern media theory)" (Monge 144). All of them examined three dynamic processes that, they argued, have driven the development of globalization: (1) fundamental alterations of our perceptions of time and space; (2) development of global consciousness through processes of reflexivity; and (3) notion of disembeddedness of events, which permits new realignments and restructuring in time and space. These three processes, space-time compression, global consciousness thorough reflexivity, and disembedding mechanisms that restructure human relations, constitute the major dynamics of globalization that have been theorized to date (Monge 147-48). Communication is an integral part of all three. Waters (1995), however, suggested that communication and symbolic processes play an even more important role (Monge 148). He observed that these dynamics of globalization typically have been manifest in three central arenas of human activity: the economy, the polity, and culture, and argued that each of these areas has a unique form of exchange. "The economy is comprised primarily of material exchanges; the political consists of exchanges of power, authority, and legitimacy; and culture is formed largely out of symbolic exchanges" (Monge 148). Economic exchanges "tend to tie social relationships to localities," "political exchanges tend to tie relationships to extended territories," but "symbolic exchanges liberate relationships from spatial referents" (Monge 148). His three interrelated and interesting theoretical claims are: "material exchanges localize, political exchanges internationalize, and symbolic exchanges globalize". Thus, in globalizing processes, the communicative, symbolizing processes inherent in culture is given priority. He suggested that the level of exchange that occurs through symbolic processes in any of the three arenas, is directly proportional to the level of globalizing. This view provides communication scholars with one of many interesting theoretical perspectives on the globalization process, to investigate (Monge 148). The study of communication processes in globalization brings significant opportunities to transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries, broaden intellectual scope, and expand academic relevance (Monge 148-49). One set of traditional boundaries that globalization requires scholars to transcend are those they themselves have erected in their discipline. Another, equally important set of boundaries that must be addressed is "globalization requires that we theorize globally and integrate our work across the spectrum of scholarship that is addressing global issues (Monge 149). Collaboration with scholars in such fields as economics, history, philosophy, political science, sociology, and religion is highly encouraged. 6. Private transnational corporations have unequal power and control over communications globally. Critically discuss the implications of this unequal power relationship for democracy and social justice. Private transnational corporations wield unequal power and control over communications globally "to shape or distort patterns of interdependence that cut across national boundaries" (Keohane and Nye 82). "The information revolution has not greatly equalized power among states" (Keohane and Nye 89). CNN, Reuters and other established transnational TV channels often make the mistake of generalizing situations in developing countries, by describing them negative with crime, famine and war. The image of Third World countries, especially Africa, has been portrayed in a bad-news-syndrome fashion. (Eskom and Africa: Country Images and the Impact on Corporate Communications 44). This badly written, destructive description, and unfair news coverage on Africa and other Third World countries by transnational established media, have given these countries a one-sided and warped image. In Africa, South African telecommunication giants MTN and Vodacom have recently "increased their ownership of telecommunication services in West and East Africa. South African Airways has acquired parts of Air Tanzania and AngloGold has acquired Ashanti in Ghana. But the business flow in Africa is still difficult, since it often requires the agreement of international shareholders who are reluctant to agree to a further expansion based on their general perception of Africa (Eskom and Africa: Country Images and the Impact on Corporate Communications 45). 7. Analyse and critically discuss South-North (CONTRA FLOW) media flows in any sector. Include in your answer some reflection on the reasons for some countries being more successful in this than others. You could, for example, discuss the audio visual industries of India or Brazil or critically evaluate the development of Weblogs or Al Jazeera. The establishment of Al Jazeera, the best known specimen of a new brand of Arab transnational satellite channels is changing the media environment, which used to be dominated by the CNN and other transnational satellite news TV channels. The rise of the new programme and the recognition of Al Jazeera as a trustworthy news resource worldwide, widely quoted by other news media, was pushed by the third Gulf War that started with a lightning campaign of an U.S. led international coalition against Saddam Hussein's Iraq (Country Image: US State Department, 6th International Agenda Setting Conference, Lugano 46). In 2004, Al Jazeera's quotations surpassed that of the CNN, when the insurgency in Iraq accelerated. CNN outsmarted Al Jazeera only in the second quarter of 2005. During the second Gulf War, or "Operation Desert Storm", CNN had its international breakthrough, as a major player in the international news system, among other established transnational satellite TV channels. In times of war and crisis, these stations exert influence widely beyond the group of their viewers, which include political and business protagonist and rival media organizations, both print and electronic. The growing diversity of sources and the emergence of new players on the stage as well as a growing distrust towards the media, triggered on one hand by a series of high profile cases of fraud and error, especially in some renowned U.S. news outlets, ranging from the New York Times to CBS and Newsweek, influenced the impact of the media on the perception of foreign countries. The proliferation of weblogs, which offer an alternative perspective of the events, supposedly influenced less by the economic and political structures governing established media, further damaged the authority of this news media. For instance, a CBS newscast's exposition of some factual errors about George W. Bush's military record by a weblog, indicating a rather careless use of unproven sources, led to a inglorious end of the career of TV icon Dan Rather in March 2005. AL Jazeera and other widely watched Arab news channels have generated moral and material support worldwide, thereby strengthening opposing forces. As a result, Western news outlets have lost credibility at home and abroad, at the expense of governments and international organizations that have lost a prime instrument of communication and legitimation. There is a need for Western governments and news organizations to start a new constructive dialogue with their competitors, to overcome this gap. 8. How has globalisation affected the forms of entertainment in contemporary societies Provide examples from a country of your choice. The globalization of culture, has enabled Disney, one of the largest media and entertainment corporations in the world, to spread its culture in other countries in the world, besides the US, where it has been a part of its culture and identity (Hu 7-8). Today, there are Disney Theme Parks in Hongkong, Paris and Tokyo, where the Disney culture influences other national public spheres, "but does not damage the already-existing way of life, because the local people enjoy such a culture" (Hu 8). 9. Critically discuss the impact of the development of the World Wide Web on communications. The World Wide Web and mobile communications empower ordinary people, resource-poor activists and protest agencies to fight against the establishments - governments, big businesses and the mass media. The internet incites a globalization of both news media and public sphere, and enables more interactive communication via its bi-directional communicative technology: Email, Online Chat, Weblog, and others (Hu 7). The internet and other electronic media "have the potential to enhance individual freedom, widen opportunities for the Southern countries, and increase democratic participation in communication and the media" (Mowlana 17). The World Wide Web facilitates the sharing of information as well as cultural. Thus, it has become an indispensable tool for communications. 10. Outline and discuss how 'localisation' (sic) and globalisation fit together. Provide examples from a country or sector of your choice. Violent economic and political globalization, thru the spread of developed technologies gained the support of small groups, but tendencies for deeper understanding or active management of the consequences of this phenomenon began to appear only at the end of the 80's. One of these tendencies is the "discovery", perception of localization as process and exploration of the history of localization, in order to understand or to seek present possibilities. But, a decision has to be made - whether localization as a process should be put as an opposition to globalization, or it should be considered as a process exercising its effects together with globalization. In Denmark, "CNN has already started a programme of localization by making alliances with local actors, Danish newspaper Berlingske Tidende. Together, they run an online news service (CNN.dk/Berlingske Online) that contributes to a change in the social geography of both: CNN becomes domesticated and Berlingske Tidende gets a more global image" (Hu 10). 11. Globalisation has its 'discontents'. Analyse and discuss how groups of citizens engage with resistance to the process of globalisation. In "Global Capitalism versus Global Community," Bello highlights the struggle of groups of people to construct a global community, as a resistance to corporate-driven globalization. This is manifested in the Porto Alegre process: The site of the World Social Forum (WSF) in 2001 and 2002, Porto Alegre, a medium-sized city in Brazil, has become a byword for the spirit of the burgeoning global community. Galvanised by the slogan "Another world is possible', some 50,000 people flocked to this coastal city between 30 January and 4 February 2002 - nearly five times more than attended in 2001. The pilgrims included fisher-folk from India, farmers from Thailand, trade unionists from the United States and indigenous people from Central America. In symbolic terms, while Seattle was the site of the first major victory of the transnational anti-corporate globalisation movement, Porto Alegre represents the transfer to the South of the center of gravity of that movement. (Bello 68) Bello emphasizes that the Porto Alegre forum might be said to perform three functions for the real global community: (1) it represents a space - both physical and temporal - for this diverse movement to meet, to network and, quite simply, to feel and affirm itself; (2) it is a retreat during which the movement gathers its energies and charts the directions of the continuing drive to confront and roll back the processes, institutions and structures of global capitalism; and (3) Porto Alegre provides a site and a space for the movement to elaborate, discuss and debate the vision, values and institutions of an alternative world order, built on a real community of interests (Bello 68-69). Porto Alegre was just one of the many forms of resistance to globalization. It was a reflection of other equally significant forms of resistance carried out worldwide by millions of people who believe in the possibility of creating another world. 2007/08 Re-Assessment: Report Adesoji's paper "Globalization of the media and the challenges of Democratisation in Nigeria, " examined the impacts of globalisation on the print media and how the impacted press promoted democratisation. His paper also highlighted some of the challenges that Nigerian press has to face as far as democratisation is concerned in a globalized world (1). The new wave of democratisation witnessed in Africa in the 1990s, triggered the active participation of the press in the tasks of promoting, projecting and supporting the process. "In Nigeria where the political landscape became confusing as a result of the ambiguities that characterised the military-supervised democratisation, the press was not found wanting despite the travails of the media during the period in question" (Adesoji 1). The ability of the Press to play the watchdog role creditably stemmed from its past history particularly when the nation was struggling for political independence. The involvement of the Nigerian Press in political activism could have influenced its view of and contribution to democratization (Adesoji 7). Meanwhile, the revolution in global communication has facilitated the Nigerian Press' networking among journalists. This networking has brought about some developments, which included the recycling of international print media output on the domestic scene, the wide coverage of political issues in Nigeria by foreign magazines as well as the maintenance of contact with democracy and human rights activist and even exiled journalists. These developments became evident at the height of military repression in Nigeria when some print media organizations failed to operate freely in the country. The Nigerian Press exposed articles and features that used to be banned. The depth and volume of information about the democratic process in Nigeria, seemed to have influenced the tremendous response of the international community to the country's political developments. "The press has not only opposed and exposed antidemocratic tendencies at different times, it has also played the role of a watchdog with a view to promoting and safeguarding democratization" (Adesoji 7). Despite the aspiration of the Nigerian Press to conform to the international standard, the level of response seems to be very low or inadequate. Many challenges have not yet been met, based on the standards established in advanced democracies (Adesoji 9). The Nigerian Press for instance, has not realized the value and the necessity of carrying out credible and organized opinion polls on political parties, their programmes and candidates as well as their chances of success or otherwise in elections; and has neglected the importance of anchoring or stimulating vibrant debates that could encouraged political parties and candidates to speak up and expose their programmes to public scrutiny. Adesoji enumerated the implications of these developments on the Nigerian Press. Among these are: the possibility of election rigging, wherein victory has always gone to the highest bidder because of the absence of opinion polls; and the tendency of the Press "to distort values, promote mediocrity, wound further the psyche of rational people and contribute to moral degeneracy (10). Based on the foregoing, it can be said that the Nigerian Press' response to the challenges of democratization are quite inadequate. It has to continue playing the role of a watchdog, particularly in times when the Nigerian community has to choose their leaders who will build a better and safer world for their constituency. The initial success of the Nigerian Press in influencing the tremendous response of the international community, particularly the transnational established media, to the political developments in Nigeria, should encourage it to face the challenges that have not been addressed. Also, the Nigerian Press must take advantage of the positive benefits of globalization, particularly the advances in information and communication technology, to facilitate the process of information dissemination. The Nigerian Press can use these globalized knowledge and skills in fostering indigenous knowledge and in promoting cultural values. It can avail of free information coming from different types of electronic media, but it must avoid being subjected to the violence and politics of globalization, particularly in communication. WORKS CITED Andrews, Sean John. "Cultural Studies, Technology, and Democratic Communications: The Internet & the Public Sphere." Cultural Studies Program. George Mason University, May 2003. Adesoji, Abimbola O. Globalization of the media and the challenges of Democratisation in Nigeria. (14 December 2006): 1-13. Bello, Walden. "Commentary: Globalism. Global Capitalism versus Global Community." Race and Class. 44, 4 (April-June 2003): 63-71. Brett, E. A. The World Economy Since the War. London: McMillan, 1985. Eisenstadt, S. Modernization: Protest and Change. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1966. Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995. Falk, Richard. On Humane Governance. Universal Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995. Ferraro, Vincent. "Dependency Theory: An Introduction." MA: Mount Holyoke College, July 1996. Eskom and Africa: Country Images and the Impact on Corporate Communications. 6th International Agenda Setting Conference, Lugano. Global Challenges: Communicating a Nation in a Changing Media environment: the Global Image of the U.S.A. 2005. 6th International Agenda Setting Conference, Lugano. Hassanin, L. "Egypt." Global Information Society Watch. http://www.globaliswatch.org/files/pdf/GISW_Egypt.pdf. Hu, Bin. News Media and Public Sphere - A Process of Globalization of Public Sphere and Euronews. Uppsala University. 1-13. Joye, Stijn. Raising Awareness in a Digital Society: The Case of IPS Flanders. Working Group Film & Television Studies. Belgium: Ghent University, 2006. Moore, W. E. Social Change. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1963. Keohane, Robert O. and Joseph Nye, Jr. "States and the Information Revolution." Foreign Affairs 77.5 (September -October 1998): 81-94. Kiely, Ray. "The Crisis of Global Development." (Note: look up book title) Monge, P. "Communication Structures and Processes in Globalization." Journal of Communication (Autumn 1998): 1-22. Mowlana, Hamid. "Globalization of Mass Media. Opportunities And Challenges for the South." 1998. 1-18. Rauschenberger, Emilee. "It's Only a Movie - Right Deconstructing Cultural Imperialism. Examining the Mechanisms Behind U.S. Domination of the Global Cultural Trade." 2003. "Building the Framework for a Global Electronic Marketplace." Address to the 9th International Information Industry Congress (IIIC) "A Global Framework for Electronic Commerce". Read More