History of British Lexicography - Essay Example

? of Lecturer] World Literature History of British Lexicography Introduction The term lexicography is broadly divided into two categories: practical lexicography and theoretical lexicography. Whereas practical lexicography refers to the art of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries, theoretical lexicography refers to the scholarly discipline which involves the analysis and description of the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships in the vocabulary of a given language (Atkins & Rundell, P. 35). In addition, theoretical lexicography entails the development of theories of the types, components and structures of dictionaries. These components and structures help in connecting the information in dictionaries, improving data accessibility by users, thus addressing the information needs of users. Lexicography thus encompasses the designing, compilation, use and evaluation of dictionaries that generally describe language use as well as specialised or restricted dictionaries. From a humble history, lexicography is now widely accepted as a scholarly discipline on its own rather than a sub-branch of applied linguistics as it was earlier viewed (Kirkness, P. 53). However, many scholars agree that there is yet a consistent policy or set of guidelines in various types of lexicography such as the English lexicography. Nonetheless, the richness and variety in English lexicography is accepted and appreciated across all disciplines and corners of the globe. Quite important and influential in English lexicography’s past and present development is its history. In fact, the historical developments of English lexicography are equally of great significance in the development of the discipline of linguistics, making this history worth some scholarly attention (Kirkness, P. 67). This paper explores the various phases of the history of English lexicography, which cannot be discussed without mentioning and appreciating the roles of different types of dictionaries given their importance in the cultural developments and empowerment experienced through various periods of human civilisation. Hence, this paper also explores the various types of dictionaries used in the past and current linguistics studies. The History of British Lexicography The history of English lexicography can be traced back to the Old English period, as evidenced by the numerous glosses of religious books translated from Latin in this period. In fact, by the 15th century, there existed bilingual English-Latin dictionaries, which preceded the unilingual dictionaries that came in later periods (Green, P. 236). Precisely, the first English unilingual dictionary in which English words were explained by their English equivalents appeared in 1604. The main purpose for the creation of the unilingual English dictionary was to explain certain difficult English words encountered in everyday reading and speech (Hartmann, P. 33). This dictionary, named “A Table Alphabetical” contained, taught and explained that period’s writings and promoted the understanding of difficult but usual English words. Especially explained in this dictionary were words translated and borrowed from languages such as Greek, Latin, Hebrew and French. The complier of this 3000-word dictionary was one schoolmaster known as Robert Cawdrey. This book was to be followed by other books, each longer than the preceding book. In 1721, there was an attempt to write a dictionary containing all English words by one Nathaniel Bailey. This dictionary intended to contain not only difficult English words but also the easy and everyday words. In the same year, Bailey published the first edition of his dictionary, the "Universal Etymological English Dictionary”. This was the first book to include the etymology and pronunciation of the words therein. Similar to the case in regions and countries such as France and Italy, the British wanted to preserve the purity of their language, prompting the works of one Dr Samuel Johnson, who published his famous dictionary in 1755 (Hartmann, P. 64). The purpose of the drive to preserve the purity of the language was to oppose changes to the language and establish it in its classical form. There arose heated debates pitting the tendency to fix and regulate the English language against the futility of trying to purify and fixing the language (Landau, P. 132). In fact, people the ilk of Samuel Johnson felt that changes to the English language were undesirable. However, Johnson would later agree that he was wrong, asserting that a dictionary of the living tongue can never be perfect since words keep budding and others fall away. One positive aspect of Johnson’s dictionary was that it had illustrations for some of the meanings of words. Since then, illustrations have been part of dictionaries world over (Tarp et al., P, 92). Johnson’s dictionary was criticised for lack of specific references for quotations, reproduction of quotations from memory, lack of precision, ingenious definitions, giving way to sarcasm or humour and partial definitions (Hartmann, P. 78). Nonetheless, Samuel Johnson’s tremendous influence made him an unquestionable authority on style and diction for almost a century. Pronunciation is the other aspect of lexicography that has recorded great changes since historical times. However, attention on pronunciation came later compared to the meanings of words. The first pronunciation dictionary was published in 1780 by one Thomas Sheridan, the grandfather of the great artist, writer and dramatist. Later, an actor named John Walker would publish a pronunciation dictionary called "The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language.” The pronunciations in this dictionary would later be incorporated in Johnson’s dictionary due to the vagueness of Walker’s dictionary. This was a rather instrumental step in the history of the dictionary as it is known today. The emergence of the Golden Age of English lexicography may be traced to the last quarter of the 19th century during which the English Philological Society began to compile "The Oxford English Dictionary” (OED), originally called "New English Dictionary on Historical Principles”. The discussion by the English Philological Society that led to the development and publication of this dictionary sought to correct the some, if not all the deficiencies in the then available English dictionaries (Green, P. 102). Among the core players at the development of the OED were Frederick Furnivall and Richard Trench, the second titular editor of the dictionary and the author of the first book on lexicology of the English language respectively (Hartmann & Gregory, P. 113). To realise their objectives, the society had to use volunteers to collect quotations. Later, the act of dictionary-making became a national issue and enterprise, with the establishment of a special committee to recommend the books to be read by volunteers who had to read them and single out quotations. The readers, numbering 800 by 1881, managed to send thousands of quotation slips to the society. These volunteers and the work they did indicated the level of interest the English had in their language. The first portion of the OED dictionary would appear in 1884 and the last in 1928. Future years would see the dictionary being issued in twelve volumes. The need to create room for new words saw three more volumes of supplements issued in 1933. These volumes would later be revised in the 1970s (Bejoint, P. 64). To keep the dictionary current, supplements were published between 1933 and1986. To make it modern, the supplements were integrated with the OED to produce its second edition in the 1980s. The first CD-ROM version of the OED was published in 1992 as the world welcomed the electronic age. Currently, the OED is constantly being revised, with new material published in parts online. Types of Dictionaries There are several types of dictionaries in use in modern times. Nonetheless, the definition of a dictionary remains “a book that deals in individual words or classes of words used in a certain language with the aim of setting forth their meanings, pronunciation, signification, uses, antonyms, synonyms, derivations, history, and orthography. In dictionaries, words are often arranged in alphabetical order or some other order convenience for reference. The categorisation of dictionaries is a core aspect of lexicography, especially with reference to the preparation of dictionaries. The first type of dictionary is the general dictionary, which is often used for general reference and academic purposes. The other types of dictionaries are linguistic, encyclopedic and historic and etymological dictionaries. In addition, there are special dictionaries that deal with dialect, technical terminologies, glossaries, argot, jargon and slangs. Special dictionaries also deal with homonyms, synonyms, acronyms and antonyms. Etymological dictionaries on the other hand deal with the etymology of the listed words. Etymology refers to the study of the history and origin of the words of a given language and the manner in which the forms and the meanings of words have changed over time. Conclusion The modern dictionary’s history can be traced to the Old English period, as evidenced by the glosses of religious books initially written in Latin from which they were translated into English. However, the succeeding periods saw the emergence of more advanced and wider dictionaries from across Europe and other regions. Given the central role the English language plays in modern society, the history of English lexicography has attracted a lot of academic and general public attention. This interest has led to the publishing of the modern Oxford English Dictionary, which is found even in electronic forms. There has also been a categorization of dictionaries into general, linguistic, etymology and specialised dictionaries for ease of reference work. Works Cited Atkins, B. T. S., and Rundell, M. (2008) The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography. (2008). The Oxford University Press. Bejoint, H. Modern Lexicography: An Introduction. (2000). Oxford University Press. Green, J. Chasing the Sun: Dictionary-Makers and the Dictionaries They Made. (1996). J. Cape. Hartmann, R.R. Lexicography: Critical Concepts, Volume 3. (2003). Routledge/Taylor and Francis. Hartmann, R.R., and Gregory, J. Dictionary of Lexicography. (2001). Routledge. Kirkness, A. Lexicography, the Handbook of Applied Linguistics. (2004). Oxford: Blackwell. Landau, S. Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography, Second Edition. (2001). Cambridge University Press. Tarp, S., Bergenholtz, H., and Nielsen, S. Lexicography at a Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow. (2005). Peter Lang. Read More