The History and Development of Socio-Cultural Anthropology in Britain - Essay Example

Socio Cultural Anthropology in Britain An outline of its history and development Anthropology is defined as the “study of the human race, its culture and society and its physical development”, according to the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary. Anthropology that is concerned with the extent and nature of social interaction and also describes and explains cultural differences among the different peoples of the human race is termed as sociocultural anthropology. As Anthropology is a holistic study, there are a number of parameters that determine and measure various aspects of the human race. Theories, both of classic thinking and modern, facilitate a better understanding of aspects that define specific environments within which a dynamic set of entities are examined. Anthropology in Britain The late 18th century in Europe heralded the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment and Reason. It was a period when reasoning took a vantage position and became the basis of defining any process. Scientific thought progressed and gained impetus due to Intellectual revolution pioneered by scientists like Newton Industrial revolution People’s disillusionment with the lackadaisical governments Anthropology first became a reality when human behaviour came under scrutiny, in this period, developing from a concerted effort to understand various social sciences. Anthropology also developed as an extension of Natural History. Ethnographic surveys studied the “primitive” man in the various European colonies. Unilinealism became the basis for anthropological theory, that Western culture was the apex of an evolved civilization. British and other European societies were considered as source of “living fossils” to understand European society of the past. Migrations in ancient history were examined to study human better and there were numerous theories. Paul Rivet was among those who could successfully trace the route of Polynesians across the Pacific. By this time, another attempt to understand humans was to study them as members of a particular race. Anthropometrics (physical measurement of humans) also helped study races and their physical characteristics better. Treatises came into being… In the mid nineteenth century, Count Gobineau’s volumes stated that Aryan s was superior, and three decades later Antenor Firmin refuted it in his De l’egalite des races humaines. Gradually, Anthropology gained distinction as a distinct science, and not a branch of social sciences. This process began towards the end of the 19th century and evolved gradually into its present form. It became more scientific in approach; culture became a significant and intrinsic part of the science. Culture being all-encompassing in human behaviour, characteristics and physical parameters, anthropology too, became a science that looked beyond natural history and social sciences- it became a holistic study of all aspects that define the human race. Modern Thoey of Anthropology Britain’s modern approach to Anthropology discards the practice of analysing the present society by studying the past. Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Malinowski were the most signifcant personalities who helped develop this trend. Social Anthropology Originating in Britain, Social Anthropology developed in the post World War I period. It was a concept based on method and comprised of all factors that constituted a sociocultural premise. (Cultural anthropology, which accords a scientific hue to culture, developed in the United States, simultaneously.) Branislow Malinowsky Theory He is credited with the creating of the branch of sociology called Functionalism. He propounded that all the entities that make a society come together in a balanced pattern, to co-exist with one another and perform specific tasks. “He emphasised the characteristics of beliefs, ceremonies, customs, institutions, religion, ritual and sexual taboo.” (Voelkar, Marcy L ed. (2007) Written by Students in an Introduction to Anthropology Class, (1998) Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota.) The Trobriand Islands of New Guinea was the first site of his field study in 1915. The findings were recorded in his book “Argonauts of the Western Pacific”. He also conducted studies in Africa (with Radcliff Brown) and Mexico. He successfully managed to create a basis for explaining why culture and psychology of any group of people need to be studied as one entity, to explain their behaviour. He emphasised the significance of culture in creating the framework of every civilization. The books written by him include Argonauts of the Western Pacific, The Scientific Theory of Culture, The Trobriand Islands, The Dynamics of Culture Change and Magic Science and Religion. (The last two books were published posthumously) The New York Times called him as the “integrator of thousand cultural characteristics” in his obituary. Though Radcliffe Brown conducted the fieldwork in Andaman Islands on the basis of reconstruction, he published his fiondings along with an account of his research on some unique cultural aspects of AndamanIslands. He is eminently known for the part played in the development of the structural-functionism. This highlighted the role of institutions created within a society could keep the society in harmonious balance.. Others who made noteworthy contributions include AC Haden, Sir EB Taylor, Edmund Leach and Adolph Bastian. The concepts, though aiming at holistic approach commonly, varied in method and conceptual bases. Perspectives varied and possiblity of a unified theory appeared dim. After World War II Social Anthropology continued to develop in the European countries, taking on new and challenging paths in conceptualisation. Claude Levi Strauss’s structural functionalism was one such theory that made a mark worldwide. Claud Levi Strauss Structural Anthropology is founded on the principle that all of us perceive the universe around us within the limits of completely opposing binary factors like empty and full, thick and thin, good and bad and so on. Strauss’s principle is based on German philosopher, Georg Wihelm Friedrich Hegel’s theory that everything happening in the world was a “progression in which each successive movement emerges as a solution to the contradictions inherent in the previous movement.” (Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, [Internet] available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel). The Amazon tribes were diligently studied by Strauss and he could deduce that their societies were functioning in a framework of radically opposite parameters and progress represented a continual process of evolving solutions for the opposites. His works include The Elementary Structures of Kinship, Tristes Topiques, Le Pensee Sauvage, and a 4-volume work called Mythologyques. This work is an exquisite structural analysis of the amyth prevalent in South America and how it gradually changed in idea and form as he travelled away from there. The myth was traced in all its different forms through Central America, right up to the Arctic region! The EASA, European Association of Social Anthropologists , came into existense in 1989 and has 14 countries as members. There were manym more brilliant contributions, in terms of concepts, from many scientists, writers and ethnographers. Noted among them are Clifford Geertz and Jared They left an indelible mark in the evolution of anthropology to its present day form. Clifford Geertz A pioneer in modern ethnographic studies, Clifford Geertz is specially credited for his emphasis on symbolism when analysing the entities that make up a culture. Known for advocating Interpretive anthropology, Geertz attempts to provide a “thick” description to explain the different levels of meaning any culture offers in its study from a social science perspective or (more specifically) a political science perspective. He wrote, “culture… is a context, something within which [interworked systems of construable signs] can be intelligibly -- that is, thickly – described.” (Clifford Geertz, Description: Toward and Interpretive Theory of Culture,” The Interpretation of Culture, [NY: Basic Books, 1973], Chapter 1) To analyse culture anthropologically Geertz prefers to set up parameters for people to observe and react to, either favourably or unfavourably. He studied extensively the peoples of Java in Indonesia and wrote Agricultural Involution, about the Indonesian agriculture. He is presently Professor Emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. Among his many works are included the books, The Social History of an Indonesian Town and Negara and The Balinese State in the Nineteenth century. Jared Diamond Jared Diamond’s modern concept of environmental geography allows for anthropological analysis with a different perspective. A Pulitzer Prize winning author of “Guns, Germs and Steel”, he is an eminent bio-geographer who has written books on Anthropology, Environment, Linguistics and Evolutionary Biology. He works as a Professor of geography in UCLA. Jared Diamond’s book “Guns, Germs and Steel” reflects his conviction that environment and geography (not racial and cultural factors) play vital roles in giving shape to the world of today. of every location are the most significant parameters. This explains why cultures that have an advantageous position in food production also progress more rapidly than the others, developing both religion and weapons of destruction. His other books include Collapse: How Societies choose to Fail or Succeed, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, and Avifauna of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea. Many ethnographies came to be published, about tribes, clans and their practices all over the world, each attempting to be holistic in approach and comprehensive in detail. We have seen that as the science of Social Anthropology thrived and evolved, more and more concepts came to be included to facilitate inclusion of every aspect of human kind, their interaction and their culture. How can these concepts be broadly classified? Concepts in Social Anthropology Kinship: It plays an important enough role that is always in lively debate. While kinship is the center of building relations, its relevance is also questioned when confronted with issues like homosexuality, advances in biotechnology that affects reproduction and so on. Trust and Belief Trust among those who make up the fabric of society helps build the society and its processes, while belief is a personal mindset of every individual regarding his religion, superstitions or in the conceptual perception of the society in itself. Ritual: This is a name given to a series of action, grouped together to be performed only on specific occasions. Usually it has religious overtone and is dependent heavily on the society in context. In some societies tattooing, for instance, is imperative as a part of ritual obeisance. Tattoo has its origins in the Tahitian word “tatu “ which means to mark. Prevalent since a long long time, the tattoo has innumerable religious and ritualistic overtones, but yet have some common features. It is primarily a symbol to indicate affiliation to a certain group, clan or mission. Tattoos were found on mummies in the pyramid. In Greece it was the symbol of belonging to a group of spies. In some cultures it indicates one’s status in society. The Japanese used specific tattoos, for rituals and later went on to elaborate body suit tattooing. This was in protest against the laws that allowed only the monarchs to wear finery. In Britain tattooing the family crest, was common among the Danes, Saxons and Norse, until banned in 8th century. Yet it could be seen in the country until the 14th century. Administration: The machinery of governance needs to be conceptualised for the smooth functioning of a thriving society. Past experiences and the consequential change of profile of various cultures, makes this a study in human dynamism. Present day anthropologists think of governance sans domination and more as a cooperative tool to promote peace and understanding the world over. Laws and Rights: Anthropologists highlight this concept of legalities interspersed within social processes. Laws are made to create a well functioning framework of a social fabric. These laws come gain substance from the consequences of previous problems and obstacles often encountered in the past. Tools in Anthropology Through the times a set of tools have been devised that can help understand, measure, study and lay forth principles in relation to concepts in anthropology. They are The society itself: People within the same culture are bounded by the concept of ‘a society’. Interpersonal interactions give raise to products that in return affect humans. Values and norms: These are the accepted set of guidelines and rules that determine the functioning of the society. Values are imbibed and norms are set for every individual to follow and contribute positively towards his share in the fabric of the society. Language: It is verbal communication that ties us to society and also helps disseminate information. It sets in motion many processes that require interaction in a society and outside it. Before lexicography, information has passed down from word of mouth in many civilizations, as it was the chief means of communication and recording of experiences Culture: This is the identity of a society. Each society varies from another because of its unique culture. Culture is the set of rules and parameters that govern and are governed by the thinking society. It classifies all humanly created processes and objects like superstitions, habits, (for instance food consumption habits) fine arts and institutions of learning and enterprise. Food Consumption as an example: Garrick Mallery and William Robertson Smith were the first people, in the 1800s to study food consumption as a branch of anthropology. Man tilled land for the first time more than 10,000 years ago to grow his food. He also tamed animals to help increase agricultural yield and as a source of food themselves. Both agriculture and animal husbandry have evolved through the times to ‘cater’ to the present day society. Food habits have changed with time both within cultures and across the world, due to globalisation and the changed patterns of societal processes. One of the dubious outcomes is the recent incidence of increased prevalence of high blood pressure in the some areas of Africa where cocoa trees are found in abundance. Earlier cocoa was consumed extensively, but with increased export the people of the region changed their dietary habits. As cocoa is believed to help maintain normal blood pressure, its absence in the diet, brought on the ailment among the people! . Social Structure: Race, ethnicity and issues of inequality are the most commonly researched phenomena in the premise of social structures. Globalisation, information dissemination and the enormous reach of the internet into every culture has, to a certain degree brought about a uniformity in thought behaviour and perspectives. Inequalities and racial prejudices still exist however and present challenges to researchers in the quest of a meaningful equation to strengthen and build solid structures in society. Conclusion: This paper attempts to outline a brief history of the development of social anthropology in Britain. It also indicates and lists tools and concepts that generally go into the formulation of principles and philosophies in anthropology. * * * * * * * * * * Sources: Online Sources 1. Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia [Internet] Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_Anthropology 2. A brief History of Tattoos [Internet] Available from http://trailfire.com/form.php?aid=check&bubble=37895 3. “Consumption and anthropology: Limits to culture? By James Carrier, [Internet] Available from http://www.consume.bbk.ac.uk/ZIF%20Conference/Carrierpape.doc Articles 1. “Key Concepts in Social Anthropology”, Swiss Postgraduate Programme in Ethnology/Anthropology (2003-2009), Second Cycle, 2005-2007-03-24 2. “The Anthropology of Food and Eating”, Sidney W Mintz and Christine M Du Bois, Journal, “Annual Review of Anthropology”, Volume 31, Pages99-119 Books 1.Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Culture, [NY Basic Books, 1973, Chapter 1 2. The Social Anthropology of Radcliffe-Brown, By Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown, Published by Routledge, (2004), 296 pages 3. An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology, Robert Layton, Published by Cambridge University Press (1998), 253 pages * * * * * * * * * * Read More