Puritan Thought and Culture - Essay Example

PURITAN THOUGHT AND CULTURE Introduction The movement of Christianity from Europe to North America was an immensely complex migration, beginning from the 1620s, and extending over centuries. It was one of the most important transformations in the entire history of Christianity (Noll 1). This exodus of Europeans began as a result of religious ostracism and fear for personal safety faced by the Puritans because of the violent Protestant Reformation in Europe (Williams 52). The development of Puritan thought is the result of its European background, the reasons for the emigration of Europeans to New England, and the cultural and material conditions of the Puritan colonies (Ryder 7). Some of the Puritans who first colonised America expressed their ideas and experiences through poetry based on the tenets of Puritanism including theocracy, covenant, and messianism. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to define some of the basic concepts of Puritan thought and culture, and examine how the centrality of religion operates in the works of Edward Taylor, Michael Wigglesworth and Anne Bradstreet. The Fundamental Concepts of Puritan Thought and Culture One of the most well established aspects of Puritan thought and culture are theocracy or governance by religious authority. Another core Puritan concept relates to covenant theory. According to this, all social relationships whether between man and God, between a group of people and ministers, or between an individual and his family, were considered as contracts based on consent and mutual responsibilities (Ryder 9). The covenant is basically contradictory in nature, reflecting the general contradictions of Puritan society. The Puritan covenant and the later social contract theory were related to religion. Evidently, Puritan communities “required a social structure that enabled social unity and embodied divine will” (Ryder 11). Social cohesion required a theocracy; and God’s will necessitated political power to be intolerant. Opposing political authority was considered to be equal to opposing God. Dissent whether religious or ostensibly political was a key threat to possible social organization, since God is the invisible basis for social unity and order. Further, in the Puritan perspective, humans after the Fall from the Grace of God, required strict and precise guidance from divine authority regarding social, political and religious behavior. Intolerance in Puritan theocracy relates to general social and political ideals such as that of freedom. Moral or civil freedom that pertains particularly to human beings complies with divine law; it sets the limits to the exercise of natural freedom of living according to one’s inclination. This Puritan view of human nature is based on the Scriptures, where “prior to the Fall, Adam and Eve had no limits to the exercise of their freedom” (Ryder 12), that is, natural and moral freedom coincided for them. With the arrival of sin and the Fall, natural freedom was equated to an instrument of the Devil. Conversely, civil or moral freedom is bound by law and firmly fixed in the covenant between God and man. Additionally, the messianism of Puritanism, or its self-image of building God’s kingdom on earth are evident in the concepts of exceptionalism and uniqueness, which continue to be a part of American ideology and civil religion. Thus, the Puritans’ messianism, their religious intolerance, social covenant, political institutions, rights, freedom and democracy are all based on religion. Further, the class differentiation of Puritan society is seen in all aspects of Puritan theocracy (Ryder 8,9). The Poetic Works of Selected Puritans Edward Taylor (1642-1729), New England Puritan, poet, farmer, physician and spiritual as well as community leader considered his aesthetic poetry to be utilitarian in supporting his spiritual life. For example, each of his “Preparatory Meditations” written every month for forty-three years was intended to prepare him spiritually for the next Lord’s Supper, or Eucharist. The Puritans understood the covenant between God and human beings to be that “His agreement to create saints of some people, that is the elect, logically entailed His eternal condemnation of others” (Shucard 29), who were the damned. This constituted the meaning of grace. Thus, in the Puritan’s quest for evidence revealing one’s ultimate salvation or damnation, the greatest preoccupation in life was constant introspection and the search for and examination of one’s own soul. In Edward Taylor’s poem “Upon Wedlock and Death of Children” (Taylor & Stanford 344), his lament for two infant daughters underscores a theme found in elegy and meditation alike: mortality’s sad reminder of earth not being akin to heaven, and faith being different to vision. In his poem “Upon Wedlock”, Taylor admits that his grief could be attributed to the two different realms getting blurred in his vision. This is supported by Taylor, Davis and Davis (p.172), who state that according to Taylor, his family was a product of divine law. He initially refers to his marriage and his family as an institution belonging as much to heaven as to the earth, as seen in the following lines: “A Curious Knot God made in Paradise, And drew it out inamled neatly Fresh. It was the True-Love Knot, more sweet than spice And set with all the flowres of Graces dress” In the last stanza of the poem, are the following lines depicting deep mourning as well as acceptance of the loss of his daughters as God’s will: “Griefe o’re doth flow: and nature fault would finde Were not thy Will, my Spell, Charm, Joy, and Gem: That as I said, I say, take, Lord, they’re thine. I piecemeale pass to Glory bright in them. I joy, may I sweet Flowers for Glory breed, Whether thou getst them green, or lets them seed” (Taylor & Stanford 344, 345) Thus, meditating in poetic form appears to be Edward Taylor’s personal technique of imprinting spiritual images into his soul repeatedly. This reminds him constantly of his need for the Savior, and “ reassures him of his status of an elect saint” (Taylor et al 46). Nuttall (p.42) supports the view that all Puritans, and particularly the more radical ones hold the Holy Spirit as central to their life, and depend completely on Him for salvation. Taylor’s poems on nature are based on images not based on direct observation, but derived from the Bible, and from “exegetical, typological, and emblem traditions” (Taylor et al 47) providing metaphors that are time-tested, and classifying Taylor as metaphysical in his approach. The emblem tradition formed a pre-existing metaphorical landscape. For example, the insect motif in Taylor’s poem “Upon a Spider Catching a Fly” is used by the poet to plead with God to help humans break free from the web in which they are caught as a result of their sins referred to symbolically as the spider’s venom, thereby destroyed and made base. These sentiments are evident in the following lines from the poem: “To tangle Adams race    In’s stratigems To their Destructions, spoil’d, made base    By venom things,        Damn’d Sins. But mighty, Gracious Lord    Communicate Thy Grace to breake the Cord, afford    Us Glorys Gate        And State” (Taylor & Stanford 340) Thus, devotional literature and poetry of the Puritan poet Edward Taylor reflects the emblem tradition, as also evident in “Huswifery”. The first two stanzas of the poem are rich in the use of metaphors and emblems, as seen below: “Make me, O Lord, thy Spinning Wheele compleat;       Thy Holy Worde my Distaff make for mee.  Make mine Affections thy Swift Flyers neate,       And make my Soule thy holy Spoole to bee.       My Conversation make to be thy Reele,       And reele the yarn thereon spun of thy Wheele. Make me thy Loome then, knit therein this Twine:       And make thy Holy Spirit, Lord, winde quills:  Then weave the Web thyselfe. The yarn is fine.       Thine Ordinances make my Fulling Mills.       Then dy the same in Heavenly Colours Choice,       All pinkt with Varnish't Flowers of Paradise” (Taylor & Stanford 343) In the lines from “Huswifery” above, the words “spinning wheele”, “distaff”, “spoole”, “reele”, “wheele”, “loome” and the dyeing of yarns in “heavenly colours choice” are used by the poet to refer to the various tools used by the housewife in spinning and dyeing of yarns, as similar to working in the service of God. Similarly, when Taylor domesticates his symbolism with kitchen details in Meditation 8 titled “I Am the Living Bread” (Taylor & Stanford 19), he goes beyond the conventional realm, and displays “a strange eye for peculiar details” (Taylor et al 47). Though the topic to which he alludes is a feast, a commonplace subject, inventive symbolism is evident in the poet’s use of specific terms such as “Heaven’s sugar cake” and “Zion’s pastry”. Further, it is evident that both theocracy and covenant are inherent to Edward Taylor’s poetry replete with devotion. Michael Wigglesworth (1631-1705), a New England Puritan minister, was a poet whose work reflected his devotion to God. He examined the dogmas of his time, and used them for admonishing and consoling mankind through poetry (Tyler 278). Wigglesworth is well-known for his poem “The Day of Doom”, a 224-verse poem about Judgment Day filled with religious melancholy and written in ballad meter. It was widely sold out and became very popular. Wigglesworth intended to re-inforce his readers’ emotional commitment to Calvinist Christianity, and catechize young children in the doctrines and beliefs of Puritanism. The poem “remained the most popular English language poem in the New World for at least the next hundred years” (Axelrod et al 68). In The Vanities of Vanities of “The Day of Doom” the poet expresses his feelings of pity for the man who loves the worldly life, since he would be deceived by such a love. On the other hand, the person who only believes in the life above with God, can remain eternally happy “where flood, where flames, where foes cannot bereave him” (Wigglesworth 108). Both theocracy and covenant are reflected in the following lines: O happy Man, whose portion is above,  Where Floods, where Flames, where Foes cannot bereave him, Most wretched man, that fixed hath his love  Upon this World, that surely will deceive him! (Wigglesworth 108) Similarly, theocracy or the governance by religious authority, and the mutual contract of consent and responsibilities: the covenant between God and man, as well as messianism or the Puritan belief of constructing God’s kingdom on earth, are all seen in the closing stanzas of The Vanity of Vanities in “The Day of Doom”: Such is this World with all her Pomp and Glory,  Such are the men whom worldly eyes admire:  Cut down by Time, and now become a Story,  That we might after better things aspire. Go boast thy self of what thy heart enjoyes,  Vain Man! triumph in all thy worldly Bliss:  Thy best enjoyments are but Trash and Toyes:  Delight thy self in that which worthless is. (Wigglesworth 110) Though rendered in ballad meter which is more suitable for songs based on love, death or even tavern ditties, the poem retains its spiritual meanings. However, some readers have found ballad meter unsuitable for the sacredness of the religious beliefs in the Puritan religion. Critics observe that the ballad meter lowers the sense of the divine in the poem, and is detrimental to its spiritual quality (Reed 189). Hence, it reduces the poet’s control over the Oedipal figure that is the core of Puritanism. In the poem Farewell to the World in the “Day of Doom”, Wigglesworth invokes everyone to love Jesus Christ, to prepare for Judgment Day before God: “Love Jesus Christ with all sincerity; Eschew Will-worship and Idolatry. Farewell again until we all appear Before our Lord, a Well-done there to hear. (Wigglesworth 113) The works of Michael Wigglesworth had a strong thread of religious beliefs running through them. They include several small poems in addition to three poetical works of great length. According to Tyler (p.278), Wigglesworth’s multitude of stanzas raises him to a level above all other poets of the colonial time, except Anne Bradstreet. Both poets worked with similar Puritan perspectives, however their argument styles were different. Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) was among the first generation of Puritans who “left the security of England for the wilds of America” (Mays 53). From her poetry it is evident that devotion to God and a spirit of love helped the pioneering woman to accept the hardships and establish a new life in America. Unlike her contemporaries who wrote on weightier topics related to history and religion, Anne Bradstreet’s work related to everyday happenings, her family, and her deriving of strength from religious beliefs. A well-known poem written by Anne Bradstreet is “Verses Upon the Burning of Our House”, July 10th, 1666. The significance of this poem lies in the tension between her worldly concerns regarding her household furnishings, against her spiritual aspirations. “Here stood that trunk, and there that chest; There lay that store I counted best: My pleasant things in ashes lye, And them behold no more shall I. Under thy roof no guest shall sit, Nor at thy Table eat a bit” (Bradstreet et al 292) Bradstreet’s loss of her home and domestic comforts invokes sympathy for the poet struggling with despair. The deep tragedy of the situation is experienced by the reader. The following lines express the poet’s grief, as well as her deep religious convictions: “Farewell my Pelf, farewell my Store, The world no longer let me love, My hope and Treasures lyes Above” (Bradstreet et al 293) The poet consoles herself of a divine promise of greater rewards. Her feeling that God has promised her a permanent house in heaven soothes her grief: “Thou hast a house on high erect, Fram'd by that mighty Architect, With glory richly furnished, Stands permanent tho: this bee fled” (Bradstreet et al 293) The key position of religion in Bradstreet’s life is evident in her perceiving God’s plan for her in heaven, even when in grief at the destruction of her house (Mays 53). In the poem Verses Upon the Burning of Our House, Bradstreet’s heart is full of emotional love for God and her acceptance of His ways. Referring to Him as the “mighty Architect”, she consoles herself in a philosophical mood: “It was his own: it was not mine; Far be it that I should repine” (Bradstreet et al 293) Bradstreet ends the poem with a plea to God to not allow her to be attached to earthly things, since His providing her with a home in heaven was more significant: “The world no longer let me love My hope and treasure lies above” (Bradstreet et al 293) There is a similarity between Wigglesworth’s warning of potential disaster in being attached to the world in “The Day of Doom”, with Bradstreet’s abhorrence to attachment with earthly things as seen above in the poem “Verses Upon the Burning of Our House” and also in her poem “The Flesh and the Spirit”. In this poem by Bradstreet based on the traditional debate between passion and the body against reason and the mind, the difference from tradition is that the disputing figures of Flesh and Spirit are women. Thus, Bradstreet’s poem “The Flesh and the Spirit” (Bradstreet et al 215) depicts the conflict between the body and the soul in the Christian ethos, which ends only with the destruction of the body or “the unregenerate part”, which sets the spirit free from the body’s cage. Only then can the spirit dress in royal robes “more glorious than the glist’ring sun” where disease and death or the illnesses of the flesh do not exist. Conclusion This paper has defined some of the basic concepts of Puritan thought and culture, and examined how religion is key to the works of Edward Taylor, Michael Wigglesworth and Anne Bradstreet, who were contemporary Puritan poets. Meditating in poetic form, and accepting God’s will is inherent to Edward Taylor’s search for claiming salvation through right conduct in earthly life. This is evident in his poem “Upon Wedlock, and Death of Children” where he soothes his deep grief with the acceptance of his loss. In “Huswifery” and “Upon a Spider Catching a Fly”, symbolism is richly woven into his devotional lines. In the latter, he pleads with God to help humans break free from the web in which they are caught as a result of their sins. Taylor’s poems reflect the depravity of human beings, against God’s inestimable benevolence. In Wigglesworth’s poem “The Day of Doom”, the same Puritanical religious beliefs are expressed, to warn people that only the right and difficult path leads to salvation; and the outcome of leading a degenerate life would be great suffering in hell. Similarly, Bradstreet perceives God’s abode for her in heaven, even when grieving over the destruction of her house in a fire in the poem “Verse Upon the Burning of Our House”. The same approach of theocracy, covenant and messianism is also seen in her poem “The Flesh and the Spirit”, where Spirit has the last word, enumerating all that heaven offers for the righteous and the disciplined, thus advocating the right path for all. Therefore, it is concluded that religion and the related aspects of God’s governance, mutual contract of consent with God, and messianism form the foundation of poetry written by Puritan poets Edward Taylor, Michael Wigglesworth and Anne Bradstreet. Works Cited Axelrod, Steven G., Roman, Camille & Travisano, Thomas J. The new anthology of American poetry: Traditions and revolutions, beginnings to 1900. New York: Rutgers University Press. (2003). Bradstreet, Anne, Hensley, Jeannine, & Rich, Adrienne. The works of Anne Bradstreet. 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