Scientific Management and Human Relations Model in Criminal Justice - Research Paper Example

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE Introduction Work provides the quintessential sustenance for humankind. Individually or jointly, work needs to be accomplished for day to day living. This leads us to the concept of motivation. While some of us are self-motivated, many others need to be driven or provided a stimulus to work. Especially, in the business or organizational contexts, employee motivation efforts, assumes far more importance than in personal lives. With the progress of civilizations, attitudes to work have undergone radical changes. Today, we live in an era, where work is considered to be the basic purpose of human existence. Idleness, in any form, is viewed in poor light and the individual perceived as a misfit or, even, a failure. Businesses, the world over, operate with one of the major aims being that of profit making. Even not-for-profit organizations, need to function effectively and efficiently, to exist. Worker management is key to an organisation’s success as well as prosperity, in the long run. Hence, motivation of workers becomes an organizational pre-requisite, irrespective of its nature, size, composition etc. Purpose and significance of the topic Criminal organizations, especially police departments, are frontrunners in any society, to maintain law and order as well as for dissemination of justice. The society’s protectors are bestowed with both tangible and intangible power for effective discharge of their day to day duties and responsibilities. However, it has been observed, the world over, that police officers and departments, knowingly or inadvertently, exert their power a bit too far, resulting in coercive authority or abuse of physical and moral power. A part of the problem lies in the fact that such authorities are stereotyped as dirty designations and are viewed in unfavourable light by the public. The nature, duration and composition of their day to day work, only compounds the problem. Employee morale is, generally, low, with such organizations being run on paternalistic lines. In this context, motivation of police officers, presents a huge challenge, for employers and the society, alike. This paper attempts to understand this work environment, undertake a review of relevant literature and research work carried out in this direction and present some solutions, for consideration. Scientific Management Theories on employee motivation have been propounded by academicians and business experts since the days of the Industrial Revolution. In the early 20th century, organisations started to look at ways and means of scientific production and this led to conceptualisation and design of Scientific Management. Taylor (1856-1915) is widely regarded as the Father of Scientific Management, a management theory applied to enhance productivity. Through time and motion studies, science was brought into each and every facet of work by reducing the need for human intervention, to as great a degree as possible. This was aimed at maximizing worker capacity and profits by ascertaining the most scientific and optimum method of producing a product or performing a task. As a result, work became more predictable and less susceptible to human error and variation. Repetition and specialization of tasks was encouraged. Scientific Management was based on the following four principles : 1. Job study and determination of newer methods to perform a task. 2. Worker education 3. Selection of best workers to perform a task 4. Performance-pay linkages and higher benefits for higher output. Smart work through standardization, productivity and division of labour enabled achievement of higher efficiency and thereby revolutionized industry which till then, had resorted to more and more of human effort and cost for improved productivity. In its essence,. In the human services domain, the principles of Taylor, such as time and motion study, work fragmentation and close supervision, have found widespread application. Criminal justice too, especially in police work, has drawn heavily from the Taylor philosophy for work design, automobile-based patrol, traffic monitoring etc. Gantt (1913) designed a task and bonus wage payment system and the Gantt charts are popular, the world over, even to this day. Towill (2009) studied the fatigue and motion studies of the Gilbreths (1868-1972) in relation to elimination of wasteful movements in a task. However, Scientific Management, too, was not without its critics. The removal of the human and behavioural components in a task attracted stiff resistance from leaders who did not want to subjugate themselves to rules and their preference for traditional management and leadership practices. Workers, too, did not see this new work ethic, as a panacea to all their organizational problems. More important to the criminal justice agencies, is the present day phenomenon of educated workers. This has led to micro-specialization in police work. Union power also influences the police work environment to a high degree. Human Relations Model The Human Relations School was conceived by Mayo, who was a staunch believer in the humane nature of workers. He argued that workers could not be driven my financial gain alone and that their social needs must also be redressed, for them to be happy and more productive. Managers were advised to show a greater interest in their subordinates and advocated that workers be treated well. He conducted a series of experiments – popularly known as the Hawthorne Studies - at the Hawthorne factory of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Changes in work setting such as improved lighting and better work conditions were carried out and their benefits studied. Surprisingly, the experiments revealed that changes in organizational factors did not lead to better productivity. The workers were motivated through improved manager-worker relationships, group dynamics and better communication. Both the concepts of Scientific Management and the Human Relations School focused on work simplification, work fragmentation, specialization and performance-related pay. However, they differed in their attitude towards worker management and the humane side of business. Scientific Management dehumanized the entire work place while the Human Relations School appealed to the humane nature of individuals and concentrated on teamwork and group performance. Employee motivation theories abound in academic management literature. The major ones discussed here are : 1. Hierarchy of Needs theory 2. X and Y theory 3. Achievement-power-affiliation theory 4. Expectancy theory 5. Equity theory and 6. Theory Z. Goud (2008) critically looked at Maslow’s two classes of human needs – primary and higher order needs. Physiological, Safety and Security needs represented the former and Belonging, Esteem and Self-actualisation, the latter needs, respectively. A fulfillment of the lower order needs led to the pursuit of fulfilling the higher order needs, though not always, sequentially. John (2004) applied the McGregor’s motivation theory which categorized humans into two classes of individuals based on human nature, to the student community. Those who are lazy, lacking ambition, self-centered and are resistant to change, represented the X component. Theory Y represented the diametrically opposite category of individuals – ones who are hard working, ambitious, change inducers and are selfless. Based on the composition of the attitudes of the worker contingent, the manager can devise worker management and administration tactics. Hines (1973) studied McClelland’s motivation theory using the interplay of the three factors of achievement, power and affiliation, in employee motivation. People with a high sense of achievement strive to succeed through their own effort and generally attempt, challenging and difficult, but, not impossible tasks. Performance feedback was a key component of their work. Managers must take an interest in their subordinates and design cooperative work strategies. Gersick (1989) researched task groups’ work using the Expectancy theory of Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, based on its motivational philosophy that any human effort was burdened with a set of expectations on the outcome. These assumed two forms – effort-performance expectancies and performance-outcome expectancies. Valences represented the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the outcomes. This theory proposed that worker motivation was a function of valences and expectancies. The expanded Expectancy model accounted for additional factors like ability, performance potential and organizational factors. Equity theory postulated that the motivation level of an individual is subject to the perception of fairness or unfairness of treatment in the workplace. A fair sense of treatment led to higher motivation and satisfaction levels while workers who felt unfair treatment in relation to others, suffered from poor motivational problems. Vittell, Nwachukwu & Barnes (1993) used Ouchi’s Z theory of motivation in the domain of decision making, by taking a wholesome view of worker management. The theory suggested that worker needs and problems need to be addressed not only within the internal organizational context, but in the larger mosaic, of the society as a whole. This was true since organizations can never function in a social vacuum and are interdependent and interrelated to one another. This is apposite to criminal organizations, more so, police departments. Greenwood & Smiddy (1981) revisited Drucker’s seminal work on Management By Objectives (MBO) and elucidated on a management approach in which the manager and the subordinate, chalk out objectives in a cooperative framework, within a time bound structure. Inputs from both the parties made for better commitment to the plan. A periodic review of the progress in relation to the plan ensures that work is on track, with necessary corrective action, putting the plan, back on the previously agreed schedule. Police departments can benefit through this approach through facilitation of improved manager-worker relationships and commitment. Review of literature Sonnenfeld (2001) questioned the fundamental findings of the Hawthorne studies vis-à-vis the learning hypothesis and the wage incentives. His interviews with the participants involved in the study and further research led him to relook at these motivational tools. The differential wages could not withstand the validity of altered study conditions. Further, a steady output was also not clearly seen, thanks to this factor. The daily feedback facility, too, was not inventive. The findings indicated that the test room ambience which facilitated a cooperative group culture was, perhaps, the key to enhanced work performance and output. A combination of physical, social and financial rewards was considered essential for incentive effectiveness culminating in better productivity. Dick (2005) study on dirty work and the justification for coercive force by police officers makes for an interesting study. Social perceptions of dirty work bestow ambiguous and coercive authority on officers with dirty work designations. The use of this disapproved and often, dangerous, power takes two diametrically opposite forms. The underprivileged and the poor representing the have nots of the societal framework, bear the brunt of the raw abuse of this coercive power through forced arrests, physical assault and abuse and frequent interrogations and inquiries. The haves are easily able to skirt and circumvent the statutory protocol by either bribing their way out or stamping their social authority. Two regions, namely, front and back regions, influence the officers’ behaviour. The front region with an audience in attendance demands maintenance of certain appearances in keeping with the dirty work designation. The back region comprising work with peers and colleagues and at home, affords dropping of guard and an environment to unwind and relax. Stereotyping police officers attaches a stigma to their organizational selves and they attempt to fight off the image by exercising coercive authority. From a social standpoint, the legitimacy of dirty work designations, clouds our perception, and forces us to accept abuse and misuse of authority and power, by pushing it into a zone of ambiguity and with shades of grey. Ledford Jr. (1999) had a second look at happiness and its impact on productivity vis-à-vis the Wright and Staw findings which argued that a personal disposition towards happiness rather than changes in happiness brought about by organizational manipulations is the key to higher productivity. He presented his analysis in a two-dimensional perspective – one, why “a happy worker is a productive worker” precept, highly alluring, and two, the happiness-productivity relationship, as studied by Wright and Staw. He rounded off his research with a clear case for further research In this direction. Vila, Morrison & Kenney (2002) highlighted the role of Fatigue management in the context of improving the performance, health and safety of police officers. They recommended Fatigue and Alertness Management Plans through a series of guidelines for the employees as well as the employers. Empirical findings point out a negative correlation between fatigue, sleep deprivation and employee motivation. Fatigue management can be brought about through judicious and optimum work hours, shift duration and shift rotation, Personnel assignment and Officer education. Bennett & Schmitt (2002) studied the effect of work environment and police cynicism among police constables in the states of Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. They presented an explanatory model using three major constructs namely work environment cluster, organizational cluster and individual cluster. Eight other constructs falling within these three domains obtained from prior research were assignment, poor relations with community, poor relations with supervisors, relations with fellow constables, job dissatisfaction, criminal violence, workload and resources. Three new constructs relating to the individual, the organization and the tension or conflict in the work environment were brought in. The findings that emerged out of the study were that a heavier workload coupled with more serious calls for service and constrained resources led to an increased level of cynicism. However, no strong relationships could be established among these three variables and the level of cynicism. Slate, Wells and Johnson (2003) propounded a structural model of physical stress based on their study of State Probation Officer Stress and Participatory Management in probation organizations. Increased seniority was found to be a possible cause for probation officer stress. Female probation officers exhibited a higher level of stress than their male counterparts. Female officers were found to be more susceptible to mild psychological distress. On a concluding note, they suggested that participatory management be adopted in probation organizations to reduce officer stress and burn out. Zhao, Len and Lovrich (2010) applied the contingency theory to police organizational structures in the 1990s. They pointed out that organizational structures in municipal police organizations have remained highly stable during the last decade of the 20th century. A division of labour in police organizations working in cities with large minority populations, is highly complex. A study and application of the variables derived from the contingency theory predicted a horizontal rather than a vertical structure in police organizations. Zhao, He and Lovrich (2002) delved further into organizational settings for predicting police officer stress. Using composite index construction, five dimensions of stress viz. Depression, Anxiety, Obsessive/ compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity and anger/ hostility were studied among male police officers, American adults, elderly males, college males and male juveniles. Work environment, autonomy and feedback were found to be the major predictors of police stress. A higher level of bureaucracy in the organization led to a negative influence and resulted in enhanced stress levels. Police education brought about positive changes in stress management. Quality Management initiatives presented apposite avenues for police management reform. Lundstedt (1965) had made significant contributions in the realm of social psychology towards management of law enforcement agencies by drawing from research findings in business and industry contexts and extrapolating them to the military organization. An alternative organizational approach to the traditional military model, in the form of the “linking pin” structure of Likert (1961), was proposed. Strategies to improve effectiveness, communication and employee morale have been suggested. Johnson (2008) applied Vroom’s expectancy motivation theory to the crime prevention security check activity by police officers. Using four variables – opportunity, ability, instrumentality and reward-cost balance – he went on to prove that the expectancy motivation theory was, perhaps, not the most appropriate model to study work behavior with regard to activities not easily verifiable. Critique of research to date Scientific management believed in micro-fragmentation of a task and finding out novel methods to carry out a particular work. Productivity and predictability of the outcome were the major criterion and accordingly, human intervention in any degree of form, was frowned upon. Science and scientific work methods automated the tasks and considerable dehumanization of work, was undertaken. While it was true that this led to a more appropriate pay for performance situation through which the workers benefited greatly, the humane dimension in work was lost, which generated a lot of angst and distrust in the worker-manager relationship. Further, both the employers and employees were uncomfortable with the new work situation (Waring, 1992). The Human Relations Model did its best to bring back the behavioural and social component into the work setting, by treating the workers are human beings and fostering a trusting and mutually beneficial partnership between the worker and manager. Group work and a good communication culture were recommended to create a healthy work climate in organizations with resultant benefits to both workers and employers. However, factors such as union militancy, labour market mobility and aspirations of workers was ignored (Sharplin). The various motivation theories discussed here presented various insights into worker motivation from an individual’s perspective. They did provide tactics and strategies which the managers and leaders could tap for better worker management. However, implementation hurdles, constrained their being put into practice. For one, categorizing individual workers into different categories such as X and Y and estimating the expectancy and valence factors, proves to be highly cumbersome, especially in medium and large scale organizations. Transparency in justice deliverance calls for a significant adaptation to a newer organisational culture, which most managers and leaders, were simply not equipped to deal with or accept. While public servants often feel committed to their work, this is primarily self-generated through intrinsic motivation because governments as organizations do not often seek to encourage creativity or induce intrinsic motivation very much (Glor, 2001). Social perceptions of dirty work and dirty work designations have been strongly embedded into the public psyche. These individuals are expected to resign themselves to such categorization and reform their attitude to curb use of coercive force. But, no strategies have been explored to bring about social reformation to improve the image of the police officers, in the eyes of general public. All motivational efforts are driven towards worker satisfaction and happiness. However, no hard core evidence has been forthcoming to prove that a satisfied or a happy worker is a more productive worker. Police officers’ health and safety has attracted sympathizers from motivational experts. Fatigue and Alertness management studies have led to police reform in the backdrop of shift duration, working hours’ duration etc. Education and training opportunities have strong motivating effects. (Shattuck et al, 2008). Stress, the global pandemic of today, has severely impacted the police fraternity. Stress management techniques prescribe optimum work hours, work-life balance and a humane attitude to fellow human beings. Participatory management in strategy formulation and decision making is advocated. The efficacy and practicality of these techniques is a moot point. The application of the Contingency theory and the Expectancy theory to the police organization has yielded poor results with experts and practitioners now dismissing them as, by and large, inappropriate. Implications for management Yar (2011) traced the development of the governance of policing and security in criminology for over twenty five years. He indicates that this is characterized by descriptive accordance, explanatory confluence and normative dissonance. He argues that the contributions have as a whole neglected to systematically address a crucial issue, the functional adequacy of network or nodal governance and the inherent limits that arise, as a consequence of this structure and coordination process. An elaborate study on the social appreciation of the salient features of governance is called for. Phillips & Sobol (2011) studied the police attitudes against the context of use of unnecessary force. Police secrecy or the police code of silence remains strong in many areas. It goes on to prove that if officers in higher crime areas are more cynical, see some victims as deserving the treatment, other officers do not appear to be willing to do anything about this. Stress continues to be scourge of police officers worldwide. A number of studies and research effort has gone into its proper management. A plethora of solutions and techniques have been modeled. However, for a variety of reasons including organizational structure and hierarchy, employer attitudes and ground zero conditions, these have met with dubious success. There is insufficient evidence to show whether police officers benefit from psychosocial interventions including exercise-based interventions. There is lack of evidence that psychosocial interventions can reduce stress-related psychological symptoms. A lot more study and analysis is called for (Penalba. McGuire, Leite 2009). Another welcome development is the improved education levels of new recruits. This is a double-edged sword and needs managerial tact and finesse. While delegation can be practiced with ease and supervision curtailed, such employees demand a high level of autonomy and work latitude. It also forces the older generations to play catch up and keeping up with the newer lot would definitely take some doing. An educated worker might meet law enforcement’s increasing education standards but also has more job prospects, in turn making recruiting them into police work more competitive. (Wilson, Dalton et al 2010). Technology, has brought in radical changes into the work domain, all, not necessarily, positive. Organizations need to, perforce, marry tradition and technology. Neglect of technology renders an individual, illiterate and handicapped in modern work cultures. On the upside, technology enables execution of routine tasks perfectly and frees up an officer’s time and effort resources, to a considerable degree. Better organization and worker management is a huge plus. However, on the downside, perpetrators of crime have more sophistication to play with and this poses far more and greater challenges to policing and crime prevention. Cyber crimes have assumed dangerous and darker dimensions and, many a time, the social protection and crime machinery, are caught unawares and plainly, helpless. (Hinduja & Schafer 2009). Conclusion Compensation is a vital component in motivating employees as well as police officers. An appropriate compensation package must be designed to retain high motivation levels. However, empirical studies suggest that the adoption of individual Performance related pay by the police service would be divisive, de-motivating and detrimental to team work (Tonge, Coombs & Batcheler). Occupational stress, especially among police officers is on the rise and has assumed dangerous proportions. Coonor (2010) in his study on Police Stress and Employee Assistance Programs suggests that, perhaps, the most promising remedy for police stress is to reinforce police values. Ridgeway, Lim et al (2008) have presented strategies to improve office recruitment. A series of recommendations such as bonuses for successful recruitment, revamp of recruiting web sites, recruiting at selected criminal-justice programs etc. are worthy of consideration to address the shortage of police officers. Criminal organizations and police departments are unique in the nature of services offered to the society. These not-for-profit organizations come under the realm of essential services. They have been vested with the onerous responsibility of maintaining law and order in societies worldwide and are expected to provide a safe living for its citizenry. At the same time, it would only be unwise to give them unfettered powers to facilitate discharge their day to day duties. The judiciary has been placed on a pedestal slightly above this executive function which again is a notch under the Legislative body. It would well nigh be impossible to achieve a clear-cut demarcation of the power to be handed down to these social protectors. The overlap of tangible and intangible authority and power can never be wished away. Hence, it is incumbent on the wielders of such power to curtail coercion and abuse and that it is kept at the barest minimum, if not eliminated in toto. Academics and research can only provide pointers to better people motivation and management. 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Ridgeway, G, Lim, N, Gifford, B, Koper, C, Matthies, C, Hajiamiri, S, Huynh, A, Strategies for improving Officer recruitment in the San Diego Police department, RAND Centre on Quality Policing, ISBN 978-0-8330-4517-1, 2008, Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG724.pdf. Read More