EU Environmental Law: Carbon Emissions and Sustainable Cement and Concrete - Essay Example

Running head:  EU Environmental Law - Carbon Emissions and Sustainable cement & concrete of Cement Industry in the EU Europe’s cement industry is arguably the most concentrated globally and would therefore be facing one of the major environmental risks from the construction material if there was no EU environmental law. Historically, a strong demand for cement rose after the World War II during the reconstruction following the aftermath of the war, marking the beginning of European cement industries’ expansion (Rootzén, 2012). Towards the oil crisis of the 1970s, increased urbanization, infrastructural development and establishment of industries continued to stimulate demand for cement (Rootzén, 2012). Accordingly, some 70 percent of EU-27’s cement kilns were commissioned. Today, EU27 has about 270 cement plants and 380 kilns. Their production capacities vary from between 200 to several thousands of metric tons per day. Dry process kilns supply about 90 percent of the cement production in Europe, while the remaining is manufactured in semi-wet and semi-dry kilns. According to Rootzén (2012), over the last decade, the yearly production of cement has remained between 230 and 270 metric tons. Rootzén (2012) however argues that this was except for 2009 when the industry was affected by the economic depression in Europe, dropping by over 20 percent in the fiscal year 2007/2009. In addition, internal cement trade by the EU countries have relatively been limited, even as concerns have been raised on competition from countries with little carbon emission control measures and policies such as those in North Africa. Most EU cement producing countries operate on a global level and regard the United States as their major trading partner. Other top destinations include Thailand, China and Philippines. Dependent on the demand of the building materials such as cement, the industry is a major source of direct employment in the manufacturing processes and in the building and construction sector. This means that environmental concerns are important in the cement sector. Studies indicate that output in this industry has dramatically risen in the last decade by over 23 percent. For instance, the total metric tons of cement produced in the EU were over 267.1 million in 2006, with a value of about € 19 billion. The output rose to 272 million tons the following year, representing nearly 0.5 percent of total value added, and about 0.25 percent of employment in the industry. It is thus perceivable that cement demand is cyclical and majorly depends on the building requirements. It is also worth noting that employment has been on the decline over the recent years, for instance it offered nearly 56,500 direct employments in 2006. As a high-density product, cement has relatively low selling price, meaning transport costs are determinant for trade. According to statistics by the European Commission, 3 percent of its production in 2007 was exported outside the EU even as non-member states imported a mere 7 percent. Environmental Law and Legislations Environmental law aims to create and sustain conditions suitable for the protection of the environment against pollution or degradation. Other laws seek to assess likely future impacts beforehand as part of environmental protection while others seek to control the nature of human activity to ensure minimal levels of pollution. As a distinctive code of law, since the 1960s, the environmental law has irrevocably evolved across the globe. In Europe, the European Union is progressively committed to ensuring protection of the environment prompting the need for the member states to establish the European environmental law [EEL] and policies that relate to cement manufacture. In 1987, the European Treat for the first time included a policy in the area of environment (Pathways, 2010). According to Article 6 of the EEL, environmental protection has to be incorporated in the EU policies via a cohesion process. The EEL addresses key areas of clean energy and climate change, sustainable production and consumption as well as conservation of natural resources. The EU environmental law requires that the cement manufactures take full responsibility in ensuring sustainable cement production and minimized environmental pollution and degradation. For instance, the Polluter Pays Principle of the EEL states that postponing measures that ensure environmental protection just because of lack of scientific certainty is inexcusable. Meaning, if a policy or action by the cement and concrete industries cause irreversible or serious harm to the public, then the burden of proof would lie on those advocating for actions to be taken (Koji, 2001). Carbon emission in cement manufacture has been proved to cause irreversible damage to human health and the environment as a whole. The EEL advocates for preventive actions. It in addition involves consideration of environmental hazards beforehand and at the source. According to the proximity principle, environmental damages can be best patched up at the source. In cement manufacturing for example, prevention of environmental pollution must be done at the source. On the other hand, EEL’s shared responsibility principle expects that the stakeholders or concerned groups should apply concerted efforts to ensure the environment is protected. In the case of cement and concrete production, to play down the long-term pollutant effects of the concrete structure built, those concerned in building the structure, such as the surveyors, engineers or the concrete equipment operators, should ensure the structure built is durable in a sustainable way. They should also ensure proper building maintenance is important in the modern construction ideology (Pathways, 2012). EEL requires that the polluter takes liability for the pollution and pays. According to the Polluter Pays Principle, the polluting party, or the polluter, has to pay for the environmental damage. The principle is largely hailed as a pillar of the EU environmental law and requires that the polluter must apply the required preventive and restorative mechanism for environmental pollution. This tends to shift the responsibility of those taking part in production of cement and disposal or related waste from the government to the producers. Consequently, the financial or physical responsibility of the cement produced is extended to the post-consumption phase of the cement or concrete’s life cycle, thus offering them an incentive to integrate environmental concerns into its design. Cement and Concrete Use Cement constitutes one of the world’s most necessary building materials essential for the production of concrete when mixed with other inert mineral aggregates such as crushed stones, sand and gravel. The manufacture of cement as well as its role as the principal raw material in the making of concrete makes it a significant and dynamic element in the global economy. In addition to its manifold cascading economic importance, it is regarded as one of the world’s most used natural resource, perhaps second only to water (Gilbertson, 2009). The use of cement is closely associated with construction works. In this case, the contemporary concrete industries are almost impossible to conceive without cement, an inorganic substance that offers the adhesive effect that binds concrete to roads, buildings and bridges (Wilson, 2011). Given its economic importance as well as the geographical abundance of its major raw materials, its production is embraced practically in all countries across the globe. Additionally, its production is widespread given its relatively high density and low cost. However, the production of cement is extremely energy-intensive, estimated at around 2 percent of the worldwide energy consumption and nearly 5 percent of the general worldwide industrial energy consumption (Potgieter, 2012). This makes the cement and concrete industry a major sector that should extensively be put on focus for mitigation strategies targeted at reducing CO2, which is emitted from decarbonization of limestone, power generation and fuel combustion in the kiln. Generally, the threat of climate change is measured as a major global environmental hazard (Worrell, 2001). Emissions of CO2 In the process of making cement, limestone is heated alongside small quantities of clay in a kiln where molecule of CO2 is released from the calcium carbonate as a result forming calcium oxide that is afterwards mixed with other materials. The hard substance formed called clinker is afterwards ground along with gypsum to form powder. The resulting cement is a primary ingredient of concrete, which is a composite material that is made up of sand and gravel. The overriding use of carbon-intensive fuels including coal in clinker making however makes the cement manufacturing industry a primary source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Aside from the intensive energy consumption, the making of clinker further emits CO2 and a number of other greenhouse gases (GHG). The two are major contributory factors responsible for carbon emissions hence calling for carbon-emission reduction alternatives (Naik, 2008). Given the principal use of carbon-intensive fuels such as fossil fuels in decarbonization of limestone, or in clinker making, manufacturing of cement is a major driver of GHG emissions (Worrell, 2001). The manufacture of cement, even before it is used to process concrete, releases CO2 to the atmosphere once calcium carbonate undergoes heating to produce carbon dioxide and lime, as well as through the application of energy in its production. The cement industry generates over 5 percent of global CO2 emissions – 50 percent of which are through the chemical process and 40 percent through burning. The quantity of CO2 emitted is close to 90 kilograms of CO2 for each 1000 kilograms of cement generated. The high proportion of CO2 generated during the chemical reaction is responsible for the reduction in mass, during the conversation of limestone to cement (Wilson, 2011). A number of studies have confirmed the existence of cost-effective potentials of energy improvement within the cement industries. In China for example, several programs have come up with technologies designed to improve the effectiveness of cement kilns through increased bed composition, mechanization, control systems and insulation. The studies found that energy efficiency improved the potential of the shaft kilns by up to 30 percent. Additionally, a recent study of the Indian cement industry revealed that the energy efficiency improvement’s technical potential was up by about 33 percent when commercially viable technology is used. It is estimated that energy savings potential could be further increased to over 48 percent in the future, which could lead to reduction of CO2 emissions by about 27 percent (Worrel, 2001). Sustainable cement and concrete Sustainability, as coined by the World Commission on Environment and Development of the United Nations, refers to the ability of a resource to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the future generation’s ability to meet their own needs (Naik, 2008) Since cement has proved to have innumerable economic benefits, its sustainability is crucial to the overall health of the globe. The environmental problems associated with its production, including emissions of C02 and other GHGs continue to play a vital role in its sustainable production and to the existence of the concrete industry. Cement’s radically diminishing amount is a major threat to the sustainability of its production. As limestone continues to become a limited resource, cement production is expected to decline. Consequently, the stakeholders within the associated industries have to come up with techniques that would create concrete with limited use of limestone. Concrete is ranked among the most consumed manufactured materials in the world. For instance, in the United States, its production accounted for nearly 2 million jobs with some 2.7 billion metric tons produced in the same year, an equivalent of over 0.4 metric tons of the material produced per person each year. This shows that sustainable production of cement can ensure sustainable development of the society by sustaining employments, including of truck drivers, concrete equipment operators, carpenters, masons, iron workers, batch plant operators, surveyors, finishers, inspectors and architectures (Wilson, 2011). The cement industry must therefore continue to advance relative to the changeful needs and the expectations of the world. For instance, sustainable concrete building should be constructed in a way that its impact to the society over its life cycle is nominal (Shackley, 2006). With sustainability in mind, the structure should be designed in a way that puts into account the long-term and short-term effects of the structure. To minimize the long-term consequences of the structure, the structure constructed should be durable. In this case, construction in a sustainable way and ensuring proper building maintenance is important in the modern construction ideology. Sustainable building implies focusing on the effects the structures have to the human health as well as the environment and to the technological resources. It is also imperative that when building sustainable structures, the effects of the methods and technologies of construction should be taken into account (McDonough, 1992). An integrated sustainable design method has the capacity to minimize the cost of the project as well as its entire operating cost (Naik, 2008). Sustainable Concrete production Aside from the emission of CO2, other major emissions associated with the cement industry include dust, SO2, NOX. Among the sustainability approaches, dust abatement is extensively applied. On the other hand, NOX abatement has been widely implemented over the last decade ensuring over 100 selected non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) installed in the industry. In addition, a number of cement plants have taken lead in the installation of primary measures that are intended to improve the quality of clinker to reduce gas emissions and energy consumption. Some plants have been reported to be exploring the possibility of the industry attaining an agreement in CO2 emissions via the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. This is expected to provide conditions that lessen risks associated with carbon emissions. Technically, cement comprises 11 percent of the concrete mix. It is mixed with the aggregates before water is added and the mixture is processed and bound into a fast-drying rocklike product called concrete. The concrete is however considered as environmentally unfriendly, as abundant amounts of water, energy and excavated aggregates mixed to make the concrete causing pollution and nature destruction (Cangiano, 1992). Fortunately, engineers have come up with solutions proved to make concrete both sustainable and environmentally friendly. In the contemporary construction works, the entire stages of concrete’s lifespan, from production to demolition, are flagged as “green”. For instance, to minimize emission of carbon, two approaches can be applied, including applying used oil in the place of coal to heat the cement and making concrete that can absorb CO2. Additional features of sustainable concrete include durability, thermal mass, recycling ability, resource efficiency and ability of storm water retention (Kumar, 2009). Cement plants consume at least 3 GJ of fuel per ton of the clinker generated dependent on the raw materials used. Some cement plants have considered using alternative fuels to reduce C02 emissions. For instance, some kilns use petroleum coke and coal and fuels. To a less extent, they also use fuel oil and natural gas. Alternatively, selected by-products that contain recoverable calories can as well be used in the kilns instead of the traditional fossil fuels such as coal. Also, selected by-products and waste that contain minerals such as silica, iron, calcium or alumina can be used as raw materials in the cement kilns in this case replacing shale, limestone and clay. As some materials possess valuable mineral content and recyclable caloric values, the difference between raw materials and alternative fuels is often less clear. For instance, sewage sludge contains low but highly important calorific value and hence has the ability to burn to give ash that contains minerals essential for making clinker. Like cement, concrete is also a major source of environmental pollution. Over a third of waste from construction wastes such as demolitions goes to landfills. Most of this waste is dismissed as clean and comprises concrete and excavated material. Though the wastes are disposed in the landfills or recycled, both processes have some cost to the cement plants or construction firms. For instance, aside from the transport and waste disposal costs, additional costs accrue such as the value-added cost from energy and labor or lost raw materials. Sustainable cement and concrete production ensures that these costs are minimized. Management of waste from extractive processes Europe’s five leading cement-manufacturing companies account for close to 60 percent of the overall EU cement output. Given the CO2 emissions and its high concentrations in flue gas streams at about ~20 percent, the cement manufacturing industry calls for Carbon capture and storage (CCS) process. This process involves capturing of the waste CO2 from the point sources such as from the cement production plants and transported to a storage site for depositing where it will be allowed into the atmosphere via underground geological formation. The process in turn prevents the CO2 from being released into the atmosphere in large quantities. The process had proved vital on mitigating the CO2 and other GHG emission to the atmosphere to lessen global warming (Smil, 2005). Nevertheless, the EU cement industry is in the pilot stages of CCS. Other measures such as post-combustion captures are identifiable in European cement industry as having been applied to use similar basic principle for CSS, with estimations that about 95 percent of the CO2 emitted from the cement plants could be averted if the process is intensively introduced in the industry. However, the capture of CO2 solvents has been extensively criticized for demanding for addition production of steam this increasing the total of the emission of the gas (European Commission, 2003). By using the oxy-combustion process, the CO2 captured could be used in the kiln and the pre-calciner. When the pre-calciner is targeted, effects on the process if clinkerization could be reduced. Study shows that nearly 50 percent of the gas originating from the cement plant could be captured through this process. In addition, newer making cement processes are currently being developed in Europe using alternative materials that have mechanical properties that are similar to those of cement. The innovative low-carbon cements could soon replace cement as well as offer reduced carbon emissions. Nevertheless, these processes are in also in their pilot stages and have not been certified as technically and chemically feasible (Rootzen, 2012). The cement industry continuous to be criticized by environmentalist for contributing to around 5 percent to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Anthropogenic CO2 sources comprise fossil fuel combustion, unsustainable biomass combustion and release of mineral sources of CO2 (Worrell, 2001). Cement Sustainability Initiative I The concept of sustainable development, which refers to the processes of development that do not get in the way of the needs of the future generations, was introduced by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987, following a milestone report called Brundtland Report. The report had topnotch recommendations that stated the directions that should be taken by humans if they have to secure the environment for future generations. The concept, which is today widely recognized as basis for energy and resource saving technology, is widely praised for its global warming campaign strategies. In fact, during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the significance of the concept that is intended to balance the need to conserve the environment as well as to further economic development was reemphasized. Consequently, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was endorsed by the member states prior to its taking full effect in 1994. Accordingly, in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to cut down on GHG emissions, was widely endorsed and adopted during the third Conference of the Parties (COP3) that took place in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol however only took effect in 2005, and it covers the half-a-decade period ranging from 2008 to 2012. It has received wide praise from environmental lobbyists for having established the “Kyoto Mechanism” that involved clean development mechanisms (CDM) that the cement industry across the globe has been encouraged to take up. In 2006, over 330 such initiatives had been registered overtly reducing close to 88 million tons of GHG. More and more projects have since shown interest in CDM. In EU-27 for instance, the EU directive established CO2 emission caps on over 12,000 plants, mostly cement manufacturers, that notably spread emission-right trading within the bloc (Koji, 2012). Concrete offers an excellent material for making building structures that are both energy-efficient and long lasting. Nevertheless, human needs often change even with excellent design structures leading to potential generation of construction of demolition waste. In Europe, Japan and Asia for instance, over 900 million tons of waste is reported each year. Further, it can be recycled as a component of sustainable development. Its properties are in addition unique and can be recycled and reused once broken down into aggregate (Koji, 2012). Concrete can be applied in road works though in some areas, it can as well serve as aggregate in new concrete. Some countries have reported almost full recovery of used concrete though in some other parts of the world even as its recovery continues to be overlooked making it to end up in landfills. Recovery of concrete offers two major benefits. First, it minimizes the use virgin aggregates and production costs such as excavation and transportation. Secondly, it eliminates the need to construct landfills that are often associated with global warming effects (Mehta, 2002). However, recycling of concrete has no substantial effect on the reduction of GHG emissions. In concrete’s lifecycle, the major sources of emission include cement manufacture, which is a component of the concrete. This is because practically, cement content cannot be subtracted from concrete for reuse as new cement, meaning carbon reductions is impossible to achieve even with recycling concrete. In the construction industry, a common misconception is that concrete that has been recycled should not be used for structural concrete. Some studies however indicate that up to 30 percent of the recycled concrete can be used in the process without any viable difference in strength or workability compare to virgin materials (European Commission (2010). This shows that considerable potential for increased application of recycled aggregate is imminent. A number of countries such as Switzerland and Germany have advocated for the use of recycled concrete aggregates and are currently publicizing the use. For instance, In Germany, the Waldspirale Complex that has 105 residential used recycled aggregate (Rootzen, 2012). This in order for the cement and concrete industries to minimize their impact on the environment, then they will have to incorporate approaches that ensure sustainability as well as adopt various innovative practices. Environmental Aspects of Concrete Of over 26 billions of tons of material that flow across the globe each year, about 2 billion tons comprise aggregate used for constructions purposes. This means that though gravel, sand and crushed tones do exist abundantly on the planet, they are also a major source of environmental pollution. In other words, the concrete industry used tremendous amount of natural resources and energy, and those who use them have the responsibility to reduce their effects on the environment and human health in line with the principle of the European environmental law (EEL). If the concrete industry has to contribute to the sustainable development, the technical development for its further effect on the environment must be ensured. Thus, in line with the EEL, the environmental design systems that take account of the environmental performance must be established in concrete production and use (CSI, 2009). An effective way to ensure this is to enforce strictly the environmental policies and the EEL, within a nation’s framework. This may however conflict with various interest groups making it difficult to attain certain targets. Nevertheless, the underlying point worth noting is that the humans and the environment will ultimately be on the losing end. Therefore, a vital circle that has a reasonable system that aims to minimize effects on the environment must be established. In addition, related technologies devoted to making the system have to be developed. Standardizations that are legally binding, specifically to the EEL, can ensure environmental guidelines are followed within the concrete industry. For example, guidelines that particularly target concrete structures should be highly recommended, and in which case, they outline a framework that reduces environmental impacts that are caused by concrete structures. Overall, since environmental concerns are attributed to the rise in costs, reduction of the impacts of environment was originally not a requirement intended for design of structures. Today, environmental impacts are classifiable as negative externality. Comprehensive evaluation bidding today attracts the attention of a number of countries such as Japan as a means of facilitating internalization of harmful externality (Koji, 2001). The bidding system, like in Japan, has enable absorption of the increasing costs that result from environmental measures (European Commission, 2012). Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive Established in 2006 by the EU, the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive is a reference document detailing the innovative waste treatment techniques in Europe. The IPPC therefore serves as a regulatory system that ensures that cement and concrete industries adopt integrated strategies that reduce pollution in order to protect the environment and the human health (Metz, 2005). For instance, since the IPPC directive outlines how to install combustion plants and waste incineration plants in industries, operators of the proposed installations are required to obtain a permit from the national regulators before starting installations. In addition, applicants have to take note of the environmental and health effects related to the emissions by their plants. As part of the process, regulators concerned have also to consult with some statutory bodies, such as the Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) in the UK. This means that the offer guidelines on the possible ways cement and lime industries can use best available techniques (BAT) among the EU member states (Dosho, 2006). Efforts to reduce carbon emissions continue to gain traction in Europe. In 2011, the European Council reemphasized EU’s mission of reducing GHG by 80 percent by 2050, in relation to the 1990 levels. Cement industries are major contributors to this emissions, which the EU has committed itself to taking a leading role in mitigating (Doble, 2005). Within the last decade, the EU has unveiled a number of policies targeted at facilitating a possible low-carbon community. The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) that was launched in 2005 is recognized as the spine of EU’s climate policies on a large-scale. EU ETS, which seeks to place a price on carbon emissions, has been instrumental in helping the member states to comply with the Kyoto Protocol (European Commission, 2012). Cement industries can therefore buy or receive emission allowances that they can trade with each other whenever necessary. Further, they can purchase limited quantities of international credits from emission-saving initiatives across the globe (Gilbertson, 2009). The limited number of allowances ensures that the cement production companies have value. Each successive year, they must surrender sufficient allowances to cover their entire emissions without which heavy fines would be imposed on them. If for instance a cement manufacturer reduces its emissions, it is allowed to keep the extra allowances to cover its future needs (Pathways, 2010). Alternatively, they can sell them to some other company that has almost used up its allowances. The flexibility that the trading embraces has been hailed for ensuring that emissions are cut where its costs less (Ellerman, 2007). Putting prices on carbon and according a financial value to each volume emitted allows EU ETS to impose climate change on the agenda of the cement manufacturing company’s board and their financial structure across Europe. Overall, high carbon price encourages investment in low-carbon technologies. According to EU ETS’s January 2013 statistics, it covers installations in over 11,000 factories with a net heat excess of up to 20MW in all the EU27. The aggregate installations are responsible for nearly half of EU’s CO2 emissions in addition to some 40 percent of its GHG emissions (Humphreys, 2012). Energy use and CO2 emissions by Cement Industries Intensive energy use and GHG emissions by industries can be categorized using a broad array of analytical tools from various disciplines. There are six sets of empirical methods targeted at understanding and highlighting changes in industrial energy use and CO2 release. First, the energy trend decomposition methods uses decomposition methods to classify major factors responsible for changes in the cumulative energy intensity to review the comparative impacts that arise from the energy efficiency and the structural changes. Secondly, the econometric methods comprise a set of statistical approaches essential for measuring the economic associations of the key variables such as demand for energy, fuel prices or economic growth. In the case of the tip-down models, they comprise the collective models of the entire economy. They are designed to study price-dependent relations between the economy and the energy system. Technically, it seeks to depict microeconomic decisions. Bottom up models on the other hand include representation of emerging and current technologies within the energy industry. In essence, they include simulation and maximization of models that are intended to assess the impact of various technological developments on C02 emissions and energy use. Next, hybrid models integrate features from the bottom-up and top-down models to prevail over a number of limitations that are related to these approaches. Lastly, industry-specific micro-economic analyses consist of studies of particular processes within an industry aimed at optimization of energy resources (Rootzen, 2012). In conclusion, environmentalists regard sustainability as crucial for the welfare of the planet and the general human health. For instance, as the extraction of quality limestone dwindles, production of sufficient amount of cement will be disabled. There is also likelihood that once the supply of quality limestone becomes difficult in a particular geographical location, related employments and new construction projects would be terminated. Natural resources become increasingly limited as cement production cannot be cut back given the increased population and changing human demands, and added to concerns on global warming effects caused by GHG emissions, then it’s vital that sustainable solutions for concrete production in the future is necessary. Sustainable concrete structures are designed to have minimal energy inherence. They also have little waste and to produce durable structures. Overall, they should have minimal impact on the environment. For instance, they should use “green” or eco-friendly materials that have low energy costs, should require low maintenance as well as contain proportions of recyclable materials. These green materials should as well use less energy and resources leading to high performance construction cement. This means, concrete should keep evolving in order to satisfy the dynamic user demands. By designing concrete structures for sustainability means the short-term and long-term environmental impacts are both accounted for. Further to minimize the cost associated with transporting heavy raw materials used in cement production, some environmentalists advise that it is economical for the cement manufacturers to move closer to the limestone quarries (Naik, 2008). The manufacture of cement has adverse environmental effects at most stages of its processing. Aside from emissions of the CO2 and other GHG emissions, these comprise other substances in the form of dust or noise pollution when operating machinery in the lime quarries vibrate during blasting of the mines. The EU environmental law principles advocate for use of equipment that reduce emission of dust in the quarries, as well as equipment to trap exhaust gases. Other environmental protection may as well include re-integration of quarries in the remote regions away from the towns or residents once they have been closed down. References Cangiano S, Castaldi G, Costa U, Tognon G. 1992. Modern composite cements: enhanced technical properties, lower energy demand. Proc. Eur. Semin, Berlin. Doble, C; Kinnunen, H (October 2005). The environmental effectiveness of the EU ETS. analysis of caps. ILEX Energy Consulting Ltd, Oxford, UK. European Commission. 2010. The Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste. EC, Brussels. Gilbertson, T. & Reyes, O. 2009. Carbon trading: how it works and why it fails. Dag Hammerskjold Foundation. Uppsala, Sweden. Home, Robert (2007). A Short Guide to European Environmental Law. Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK. Humphreys, K. and Mahasenan, M. 2002. Toward a sustainable cement industry: Climatic change sub-study 8. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Geneva. Ellerman, A., Denny B., Barbara K. (January 2007). The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme: Origins, Allocation, and Early Results. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy. (1): 66–87 Dosho, Y. 2007. Development of a Sustainable Concrete Waste Recycling System. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology. Vol. 5, No. 1, 27 – 42 Japan Concrete Institute European Commission. 2003. “Directive 2003/87/Ec Of The European Parliament And Of The Council.” Official Journal of the European Union. Johnsson, F., 2011a. (ed,) European Energy Pathways - Pathways to Sustainable European Energy Systems. Project report, January 2011, Mölndal, Sweden. Johnsson, F., 2011b. (ed.) Methods and Models used in the project Pathways to Sustainable European Energy Systems. Project report, January 2011, Mölndal, Sweden. Wilson, C. & Grubler, A. 2011. Lessons from the history of technological change for clean energy scenarios and policies. Natural Resources Forum, 35, 165-184. Smil, V. 2005. Energy at the crossroads – global perspectives and uncertainties. The MIT Press, Massachusetts. Rootzén, J. 2012. Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the EU Power and Industry Sectors. Chalmers University of Technology. Gothenburg, Sweden Naik, Tarun R. (2008). Sustainability of Concrete Construction. Practice Periodical On Structural Design And Construction. ASCE. Mehta, P. K. (2002). Greening of the concrete industry for sustainable development. ACI Concrete International, pg 23–28. The Cement Sustainability Initiative. (2009). World Business Council for Sustainable Development. World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Koji, S., 2001. The New Century of Concrete Technologies. Kagawa University, Japan Kumar, M., & Helena, M. 2009. Tools for Reducing carbon Emissions Due to Cement Consumption. Structure Magazine. Jan 2009. Matsuka, T., Sakai, K., Nishigori, W., Yokoyama, T., Nishimoto, Y., and Onodera, S., 2006. Effect of rubbing-reformation in application of various molten slag to concrete. Journal of Materials, Concrete structures and Pavements. No.809 V-70: 147-158. Metz, B., 2005. IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group III. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Potgieter, J. 2012. An Overview of Cement production: How “green” and sustainable is the industry?. Macrothink Institute. Johannesburg, South Africa Shackley, S. & Clair G. 2006. Carbon capture and its storage: an integrated assessment. Ashgate, London. Stern, N., 2007. The Economics of Climate Change – The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Söderholm, P., Hildingsson, R., Johansson, B., Khan, J. & Wilhelmsson, F. 2011. Governing the transition to low-carbon futures: A critical survey of energy scenarios for 2050. Futures, 43(10), 1105-1116. Wagner, M. 2004. Firms, the Framework Convention on Climate Change & the EU Emissions Trading System. Corporate Energy Management Strategies to Address Climate Change and GHG Emissions in the European Union. Centre for Sustainability Management, Lüneburg. p.12 Wilson, C. & Grubler, A. 2011. Lessons from the history of technological change for clean energy scenarios and policies. Natural Resources Forum, 35, 165-184. Wilson, S.A., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., Thom, J.M., Anderson, R.G., Raudsepp, M., Gabites, J.E., Southam, G. 2009. Carbon dioxide fixation within mine wastes of ultramafic-hosted ore deposits. Monash University, Wellington, Australia. Wilson, E. & David G. 2007. Carbon capture and sequestration:integrating technology, monitoring and regulation. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK. Worrell, E., Lynn P., Nathan M., Chris H. & Leticia O. 2001. Carbon Dioxide Emissions From The Global Cement Industry. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Berkeley, California. Wu, Z. 2000. Development of high-performance blended cement. University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Read More