Comparison of Two Research Articles - Assignment Example

Communicative Language Teaching al Affiliation) The aim of this paper is to critically analyse two selected journal articles. The two selected papers are research into the relationship between the need to develop communicative language teaching skills in college level instructors and the two dimensions of teacher knowledge in regards to communicative language teaching. To enable easy reading, we will first deal with each article separately. An outline of each paper in form of a brief summary is given, these are then critiqued based on various factors such as reliability and validity, ethical issues, sampling and statistical issues, research method(s) and then the various recommendations for alternative approaches and ways to conduct research. Although the titles appear slightly similar- they all relate to communicative language teaching skills, the papers are written differently and make use of various data collection. Having critiqued the first journal article, it seems to be valid and reliable, having used a mixed method approach using both qualitative and quantitative analysis. However the number of respondents was limited and this raises the question of whether they were a complete representation of the entire population. It would have been more suitable to pick respondents from various regions. Furthermore, the researchers could have considered the variations and exceptions in their findings in order not to over generalise the results. The second journal article’s validity and reliability could be questioned as the participation in data collection was voluntarily, although it does serve to address the ethical part of the research. However, it has followed only a qualitative method which may not give accurate results as if various approaches were used. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 4 2.0 An Outline of the Journal Articles 4 2.1 Journal Article one 4 2.2 Journal Article two 5 3.0 Validity and Reliability 7 3.1 Validity and Reliability of Journal Article one 8 3.2 Validity and Reliability of Journal Article two 9 4.0 Research Methods 10 4.1 The Research Methods in Journal Article one 10 4.2 The Research Method in Journal Article two 11 5.0 Sampling and Statistical issues 12 5.1 Sampling and Statistical issues in Journal Article one 12 5.2 Sampling and Statistical issues in Journal Article two 13 6.0 Ethical Issues 14 6.1 Ethical Issues in Journal Article one 15 6.2 Ethical Issues in Journal Article two 16 7.0 Alternative Approaches 16 7.1 Alternative Approaches for Journal Article one 17 7.2 Alternative Approaches for Journal Article two 18 Conclusions 19 References 22 1.0 Introduction The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate two journal articles in terms of the research method(s) used, how the research was carried out to reach the conclusions. The key argument focuses on a clear research question and the selection of an appropriate methodology for the research. This papers starts by giving a summary of each journal article and then analysing them separately. For each article, the validity and reliability have been assessed in the light of literature on these topics. Subsequently, sampling, statistical issues and ethical issues of each article are discussed. Finally, possible alternative approaches for collecting data in the research are suggested. 2.0 An Outline of the Journal Articles In this section, the two selected journal articles have been summarised. Then the major claims that the researcher(s) make are highlighted with an explanation of how procedures in the papers have been implemented to prove the claims. Finally, the findings of the papers are presented. 2.1 Journal Article one The title of this article is ‘two dimensions of teacher knowledge: The case of communicative language teaching’. It is an experiment conducted by two researchers, Devon Woods and Hamide Cakir (2011), in Canada. The core of the study is to examine the extent to which teachers’ knowledge and beliefs affect the way they teach the language to their students. The researchers claim at the very beginning of the experiment that teachers have their own set of beliefs and thoughts that they cannot express openly due to the restrictions of the concepts they are taught. Instead of treating these two areas as entirely different fields, they can be synthesized to one because fundamentally they are the same thing. To further analyse this topic, the researchers divided it into two topics. The first segment deals with the teacher beliefs, what a teacher believes, knows and thinks. This is basically the teacher knowledge and this is used to lead the arguments in this part of the paper. The second segment deals with the communicative language teaching phrase. This clearly outlines the basic means by which language needs to be taught. In the second main section of this article, there is a study of the knowledge of communicativeness in teaching language by looking at real life scenarios of several graduate teachers. To test the hypothesis, 6 recently graduated teachers of English as a foreign language in Turkey were recruited. All the participants graduated from the same B.A program in English Language Education that was being offered by a prominent university in Turkey in 2008. All of them had undergone 10 years of learning experience given that within the educational system, grammar based teaching was the norm. All had participated in a 1 year long practicum where they taught EFL classes and had a one term teacher training which included observing EFL classes. Out of this group, 3 were currently teaching in Turkey, 2 were pursuing M.A degrees in the United States and 4 of them had at least 1 term teaching in a foreign country where English was spoken as a first language. Regarding the procedure and findings of the study, the researchers mostly depended on a mixture of tests and observations either by the researchers to assess their knowledge and beliefs and the communication techniques applied by them. The tests were conducted in two phases. The 1st phase examined teachers’ background knowledge of communicative language teaching and tried to find out how well they understood the basic concepts. The second phase involved them watching recorded clips about teaching in progress. They were then given questionnaires to fill in regard to certain activities that were pointed out to them. This was followed by interviews that tried to understand their responses. For the various participants recurrent terms were noted and these were further explored as they seemed to have some significance to them. The researchers concluded that all the respondents when asked about the communicative language teaching methodology, they could easily recite the literature. However, when it came to the real life classroom scenario, there was a lot of impersonation that was done and this was based on a number of factors, top of which is the personal beliefs of the individuals. 2.2 Journal Article two The title of this article is ‘Preparing Adult Educators: The Need to Develop Communicative Language Teaching Skills in College Level Instructors’. This is research conducted by Shawer (2013). The main argument in the research is to support the use of communicative language teaching to improve learning by the students. The researcher claims that communicative language teaching when followed to the core has a direct impact on the performance of the students that were being taught by their instructors. The same cannot be said for non-communicative teaching practices as they resulted to poor student learning outcomes. Having outlined some theoretical background on the importance of communicative language teaching, the researcher attempts to prove his claims by assessing the communicative and non-communicative practices of two adult educators by using various ways; these included qualitative case studies, interviews and observations by the participants. The research subjects were 2 teachers. Both of them were teaching in 2 separate colleges but had initial EFL/ ESL training and attended the same in service communicative training. The research was conducted in by having the trainers attend a communicative training. They attended the same training for a whole week, 2 hours a day where CLT was taught by various lecturers who made use of a variety of resources such as PowerPoint presentations, booklets, journals and hand-outs. They then submitted assignments at the end of the training period. This was followed by 15 days training where they watched videos on communicative training. They then prepared lesson plans on the subject and had the opportunity to teach and analyse them. The researcher observed the instructors during this period after which he conducted several interviews. The two instructors were interviewed separately and then their students were interviewed in groups. Regarding the procedure and the findings of the research, the tests were carried out consequently and the attendance was voluntary. By analysing the collected data from the instructors and the students, the researcher concludes the importance of following the CTL (Communicative Teaching Language) guidelines and the impact that it has on the learners. One of the interviewees, Joseph, was unable to practise CLT into actual practice in the classroom. However, the researcher believes that one should be able to put the CTL strategies in real life context by relating them to what the students will easily understand. 3.0 Validity and Reliability Before assessing the validity and reliability of both journal articles it is very important to give an introduction and explain the two terms, then the validity and reliability of each journal article is evaluated based on the literature. It is widely accepted that validity and reliability are amongst the basic criteria to judge the quality of any academic research or journal article. Norton (2011) defines validity as ‘the degree to which the results can be accurately interpreted and effectively generalised.’ Ellis (2012) have split this definition into two parts; the first is ‘internal validity’ which is about the extent of the accuracy in interpreting the paper, and the second is ‘external validity’ meaning the level to which the outcomes can be generalised. This idea concurs with how Lee, et al. (2004) explain the meaning of validity. On the other hand, Alcon, Soler & Jorda (2007) define reliability as ‘the degree to which the results of a study are consistent.’ Similar to validity, they have also subdivided the meaning of reliability into two types. The first is concerned with the question of whether the results would be the same if the included data was re-analysed’ by another researcher. This is known as ‘internal reliability’. The second part deals with the issue of producing the same result if the research is ‘replicated’ known as ‘external reliability’. Despite the fact that validity and reliability are interrelated, Littlewood (2002) argues that having one of these present in research does not necessarily prove the existence of the other. Therefore, one should be careful to judge the validity and reliability of research (Naranga, 1996). In the next section, an assessment of each journal article is given to show its validity and reliability. 3.1 Validity and reliability of Journal Article one As mentioned in the outline, the first journal article deals with the two dimensions of teacher knowledge in regards to communicative language teaching to assess validity and reliability of the research, one should know how the data was collected and presented and scrutinise the content and the extent to which the findings could be generalised. It is worth mentioning that the title seems to be straight to the point, however one might expect to see different graduates in different places taken as samples, whereas all the data is collected from graduates of a single college. This could be seen as a weak point as there is no clear indication to the content of the research which is vital in any research. To ensure research is valid and reliable, it should widely review the literature written on the research topic. In this article, a good range of references; about 41 books relevant to the topic are used. Another strong point of this research would be the various research instruments such as tests and observations which were mostly carried out by the researchers themselves, generating good authentic qualitative data. These qualities would make research valid and reliable to a great extent. Concerning the findings, the researchers have analysed the data thoroughly to make their point clear and draw conclusions. Therefore, one can say that this journal article is valid and reliable to a great extent. Furthermore, it is published by a prestigious institution, Carlton University in Canada who may not risk publishing an invalid and unreliable study. 3.2 Validity and reliability of Journal Article two Similar to the first journal article, this research is also about the importance of communicative language teaching and the role it plays in the learning process, but here all the data relates to the role that tutors have to play in using these techniques to pass on relevant information. The researcher claims that there is a correlation between the performance of students and the type of the tutor. Both of the tutors in this study went through the same training and were given a number of students to teach who did not have any relation to them or prior experience with them. After this the interviews were conducted and the students were chosen randomly. Validity might be questioned because the group of students might already have set perceptions in regard to a certain tutor. As a result, their opinions might be biased. It is worth mentioning that the participation was voluntarily. Therefore, one may argue that it would affect the validity and reliability of the study. However, the researcher admits that having such a small number of participants might not be enough to over-generalising the claims. There were several interviews to find out the effect of the learning process to the tutors and their students. There are many factors that should be considered regarding the validity and reliability of tests, such as the time of the test, how it was administered, how the environment was and how it was marked. Taking all these criteria into consideration and the time taken to prepare and execute the research, it is difficult to question the validity and reliability of the research. On the other hand, if one reads the discussion part carefully, it is clear that the data obtained, although limited, is analysed thoroughly. One could say that if the study had been specific to investigate a number of tutors, it would have been more valid and reliable than to make such sweeping statements to argue that there is a clear relationship between the performance of students and the type of tutor who is in charge of them. In conclusion, one can say that due to the factors outlined above, the paper is valid and reliable research. This is strengthened due to the fact that the target learners have been specified in the title and has not been over-generalisations. 4.0 Research Methods It is widely agreed that ‘qualitative’ and ‘quantitative’ methods are amongst the most commonly used research methods in the field of education. Qualitative research is defined as ‘the research that is not based on precise measurement of observed phenomena’. Moreover, they define quantitative research as ‘the research that uses precise and mathematically or statistically provable techniques for measuring observable phenomena’. It is argued that the concept of following the ‘best’ way to carry out research is almost impossible. However, there might be an appropriate method to follow to investigate a certain research question. Therefore, it is believed that the ‘context’ of the research has a great deal in deciding on its methodology. Moreover, it is maintained that a researcher should not be too strict in depending on a certain method, as the research question may develop so as to be able to mix two or even more methods. In this section, the research method(s) that have been used in the journal articles are highlighted. 4.1 The Research Method in Journal Article one It is clear from reading the article that the researchers mixed qualitative and quantitative methods of research. They depend mostly on first-hand data collected from the participants. This mixed way of carrying out research could have many implications. Firstly, the more qualitative data that you have, the more authentic the findings would be. The researchers have used a wide range of literature to support their arguments and back up their research questions. Hence, the article commences with a very general concept of defining the two dimensions of teacher knowledge in regards to communicative language teaching. One reason for mixing methods could be that this process is recommended by many researchers. Mixing both qualitative and quantitative approaches makes research stronger and valid. 4.2 The Research Method in Journal Article two The research method used in this study qualitative. One reason for this could be that the research purely depended on first hand data from respondents to prove its claims. Many researchers, such as Gass (2012), Pussel (2005) and Johnson et al., (2003), recommend using qualitative research to investigate social issues. Furthermore, Richards, Jack & Theodore (2001) highly recommend following a qualitative method of research when doing anything related to learning an L2. Therefore, it is understandable why the researcher choose this type of method. However, one should bear in mind that analysing qualitative data could produce some numbers and statistic. Then when assessing a research method, one should not be misled by having some numbers and figures as qualitative data methods can also include this. In conclusion, although the researcher commences the study by stating the need to develop communicative language teaching skills in college level instructors he has followed a qualitative method for carrying out his research. 5.0 Sampling and Statistical issues It is important for any researcher should ask this fundamental question ‘who or what will be studied?’ before embarking on research. The reason why this question is crucial is to specify the area or type of people that the research is aimed at. Hence, ‘sampling’ or taking an example is vital for researches as Yalden (2001) believe that it is almost impossible to undertake research on everybody and everything. However, Richards (2001) suggests that researchers should be flexible enough in taking samples as sometimes they may need either to take more or less samples within the process of data collection. This section explains the type(s) of sampling that the journal articles have used to carry out their research. 5.1 Sampling and Statistical issues in Journal Article one In this journal article, the researcher worked with 6 graduate language teachers in Turkey. They selected the samples randomly based on already existing criteria on the relationship of the two dimensions of teacher knowledge in regards to communicative language teaching. This type of sampling is called random sampling (Yalden, 2001). This study intends to examine different aspects of the teachers’ knowledge in a more indirect manner. Moreover, there is a no mention of male and female participants supporting which suggest this is not an important criterion when taking samples. This information might not affect the findings of the research. Another crucial point is that the researchers have not explained the criteria by which they have chosen the respondents. It would have been helpful for the reader if the criteria were provided in the paper. Overall, it is clear that the researchers have used reasonable sampling in the research. However, it would have been better if the criteria were explained and the ethnical balance taken into consideration. 5.2 Sampling and Statistical issues in Journal Article two In this study, 2 tutors are taken as samples. As the participants took part voluntarily, and were selected from interviews and observations of various teachers, this type of sampling is called ‘non probability sampling strategy’. This is where the researcher requests participation in the process of data collection based on self-consent. The two were chosen because they matched the required criteria and shared similar characteristics. There are two important sampling issues within this research. Firstly, participation was voluntarily which would suggest that there is no guarantee in balancing male and female participants. Any imbalance in the ratio between male and female might affect the findings. Secondly, the extent of the ‘representativeness’ of the research could be questioned. Mukalel (2013) considers the rate between the targeted population and the sample as an important criterion for sampling. Therefore, it could be concluded that the number of respondents is not fair enough to represent the huge population that the study aims at. However, the researcher suggests that one should not be too overwhelmed by the findings as available data was restricted. 6.0 Ethical Issues It is almost inevitable that in any social science research the question of ethical issues would arise. This is because the vast majority of this type of research involves collecting data from people in one way or another. Therefore, the researcher has to think carefully before, during and after collecting data from the respondents. Fernandez (2001) considers the participants ‘consent’ as one of the most important ethical issue in social research. However, Fernandoz (2001) argues that it would be more difficult if children were involved in the process of data collection as the parents should give their consent if the respondents are legally underage. Another important ethical issue is to acknowledge the sources, people, and institutions who are involved in the research in one way or another. This section deals with the extent to which the researchers have considered the ethical issues in their research. 6.1 Ethical Issues in Journal Article one In this study, 6 graduates from a university in Turkey are involved in the process of data collection. Another crucial point is that respondents are from various cultural backgrounds. Naranga (1996) believes that various respondents could have a different understanding of collecting data from individuals and how it will be used in a published study. Therefore, it is an ethical responsibility of the researcher to ensure respondents have a full understanding of how the data will be used. However, one has to admit that the researchers have acknowledged the sources for the study. For many researchers, this could be seen as inevitable to avoid plagiarism; however, it is also regarded as an ethical responsibility of the researcher. In conclusion, it seems that the researchers have ignored only few ethical duties as their crucial source of information for the study was young adults. They do not need to have obtained the parental consent. However, it is worth mentioning that wherever they used a source from literature to back up their claims, they seem to have very carefully acknowledged it, which is considered another ethical duty of a researcher. 6.2 Ethical Issues in Journal Article two Unlike the first journal article, the respondents in this study are adults who have voluntarily taken part in the research. They respondents are all teachers who have been practising the profession for several years and therefore have the necessary experience. When evaluating the ethical issues of this research, one has bear in mind that participation was voluntarily. It is commonly agreed that the term ‘volunteer’ denotes self-consent. However, most of the respondents might not have been fully aware of how the data would be used in the research. Based on the criteria that researchers such as Johnson (2003) have suggested for ethical dimensions of research, it is safe to say that this study has fulfilled most of the ethical concerns. Furthermore, the researcher has fully acknowledged the sources that they have used throughout the study. However, the participants have not filled out any form to acknowledge their understanding of how the researcher can use the data collected. This could be seen as a consequence of voluntary participation. Therefore, there is a possibility that the researcher could use the data for another purpose other than the research. 7.0 Alternative Approaches It is widely appreciated that there are various ways for conducting research. For example, Savignon and Sandra (2007) mention ‘qualitative’ and ‘quantitative’ research as the two most commonly used methods. However, Johhnson (2003) argues that recently mixing the approaches has become more acceptable than ever before. One reason may be that today research approaches are not considered as a set of rules to be followed. Brandl (2008) maintains that researchers view the approaches as different means for conducting research rather than some strict rules that one should not break. Mixing various approaches within the same research has become more widespread in recent years. This section suggests some other possible approaches that the researchers could have followed when conducting the selected research. 7.1 Alternative Approaches to Journal Article one As previously mentioned, the researchers in this study have followed a mixed approach when conducting the research. They have widely depended on primary and secondary data which would suggest following a ‘qualitative’ and ‘quantitative’ approach. One other possible way is to use triangulation, meaning that the researchers consider the complexity of the issue they are studying by using more than one method. Here, researchers carried out their experiment on 6 education graduates in Turkey, they seem to ‘over generalise’ their findings to everyone all over the world. Elwell (2011) argues that a researcher should be quite aware of the variations and exceptions in order not to ‘over generalise’ the findings. Therefore, it could be suggested that using triangulation would result in more accurate results as it takes various approaches into consideration. However, the researchers here have mixed two major approaches (qualitative and quantitative) which is widely recommended. 7.2 Alternative Approaches to Journal Article two The only method that has been followed to conduct this study is a ‘qualitative’ approach. Despite the fact that many researchers, such as Ellis (2012), have strongly recommended this approach for researches in the field of education, there are others who warn against following only one way to conduct research. One may argue that mixing different approaches might lead to more accurate and valid results. Elwell (2011) recommends following more than one approach due the possible variations which are hard to realise when following one approach. Another important point is using of more than two instruments in research for collecting data. Here, the various ways for collecting data are by observation and interviews. However, there are many other ways for collecting data from respondents and these two are only a fraction of them. Norton (2013) suggests having ‘focus groups’ for collecting data for similar social issues. Overall, one can say that despite the difficulty of using two closely related approaches for collecting data, this made this article not to be as valid or indeed reliable as the first article. Therefore, it could be suggested that mixing ways of research and using various instruments for collecting data could be used as an alternative approach. Conclusions Firstly, despite the similarities of the title subject which is communicative language techniques, both pieces of research have used various methods for collecting data. Therefore, there could be many ways to approach a research question and even by using different tools for collecting data. The first piece of research used more than one method for collecting data such as tests, observations and a long-lasting experiment on the impact of the teacher’s beliefs on their actual teaching manner. However, the second study depended on one intensive test as the source of information for the research. Having evaluated both pieces of research in relation to validity and reliability, it is clear that the first one seems to be valid and reliable to a great extent. Reasons for this can be that a reasonable number of respondents have been included, although various cultural backgrounds have not been considered, nor is there a balance between male. There are however various instruments for data collection that used. However, the second study seems more pragmatic in terms of validity and reliability. One of the main reasons is that participation was voluntarily since we have not been told anything to the contrary; the ratio between male and female participants has not been taken into consideration. Also, the number of participants in the study was quite low which could affect the reliability of the research. Therefore, the second study does not seem to be as valid and reliable as the first one. Finally, one common point between both pieces of research is that there is a clear relationship between their titles and the content as the titles are straight to the point, the contents are specific to people in certain places which might possibly affect the validity and reliability of the studies. With regard to the research method(s) in the articles, the first article is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods. It relied heavily on first hand data directly taken from the respondents which would suggest using a qualitative method. Furthermore, it has made use of secondary data sources by having the interviewees watch recorded videos. Taking these statistics and describing them requires a quantitative method of research. Therefore, it can be concluded that the researchers mixed between the two commonly known methods in social studies; qualitative and quantitative methods. On the other hand, the second study used only one method for collecting data which is a qualitative method. Despite the fact that this method is highly recommended in such types of research, it may not give an accurate result in compare to using triangulation. As far as sampling and statistical issues are concerned, the first study used 6 English graduate teachers in Turkey. All were from a prominent university in Turkey. Whereas in the second journal article, there were 2 experienced teachers taken as samples to find out the relationship between the need to develop communicative language teaching skills in college level instructors and the impact it has on the students. It is worth bearing in mind that there is no balance between male and female participants as the participation was voluntarily. Moreover, the research has been carried out only at one university which might not necessarily reflect the situation in different places, even within the same country. Therefore, it can be concluded that this research has some problems with sampling and statistical issues. With respect to ethical issues, the first piece of research seems there is a wide range of literature used in the study, all of which is well-acknowledged. Like the first study, the second study does not have ethical problems as the respondents were adults and their participation was voluntarily which suggest self consent to taking part in the research. Finally, some possible alternative approaches have been suggested for making the studies more effective. The first study uses a mixture of both qualitative and quantitative methods. However, using a triangulation method would make it more effective as it would consider the possible variations and exceptions in the findings. The researchers have made some sweeping statements in their findings, but using triangulation could help avoiding this by being more cautious in expressing the results. On the other hand, using a mixed, or at least more than one method of research has been suggested for the second study. Furthermore, the research could have used different instruments for collecting data from respondents rather than just sticking to some tests. Overall, it can be said that except for the ethical part in which the second paper seems to be more successful than the first, in all the other areas such as validity and reliability, research methods, sampling and statistical issues, the first paper seems to be more successful in reaching the findings. However, both papers share in having too general titles whilst the research has been carried out on certain respondents in specific places. References Alcón, Soler E, and Jordà P. Safont.(2007). Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Brandl, Klaus.(2008) Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hal. Print. Das, Bikram K.(2005) Communicative Language Teaching: Selected Papers from the Relc Seminar on "communicative Language Teaching", Singapore, 23-27 April 1984. Singapore: Published by Singapore University Press for SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Print. ELWELL, P. 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