The Main Aspects of the Information Society Idea - Essay Example

DIGITAL MEDIA - CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES by 3. What are the main aspects of the information society idea and in what sense is the information society idea problematic? Introduction The term information society refers to has been used widely both in academia and other fields in society. It has been a common aspect for more than a decade that people who inhabit advanced societies such as the United States of America and Japan to state that they live in an information society. Educationists, politician, industrialists and journalists among other professionals have made such claims especially because each one of them have concerns regarding the best way to respond to and compete successfully in the information age. This part discusses the main aspects of the information society idea and the reasons why the information society idea is considered problematic. What then is information society? The most common definition of information society emphasizes on technological innovation. The term refers to society where the creation, distribution and use of information are the most important aspects of economic, cultural, technological, occupational and spatial activities. An information society idea can be contrasted in societies where economic strengths lie in industrial or agrarian base. The tools of information society are computers and telecommunications as opposed to ploughs showing that information societies represent highly industrialized societies (Webster, 2005:10). The concept of information society originated from the Japanese social sciences in the early 1960s. the Japanese version of the term (joho shakai or johoka shakai) came from a conversation between Kisho Kurokawa, a famous architect and Tudao Umesao, a renowned historian and anthropologist. The first debut of the term in a written text was in a study published in 1964 by Jiro Kamishima. Since then, the term has been widely used throughout the world. Therefore, it is important to understand the term information society from the five definitions including technological, economic, occupational, spatial and cultural aspects (Lyon, 1998:3). Technological aspect The technological definition of information society focuses on technological innovations and the effects that the innovations have on information technologies in different sectors of society. The major aspect here is that the cost of using computers has become cheap and helped in their application in different fields. This definition provides one important aspect of information society. Technological innovations are among the most visible indicators of new times and considered as an aspect representing the concept of information society. The technological innovations include personal computers, cable and satellite television and new office technologies such as word processors among other forms of technology. The numerous technological innovations and their application in different aspects and sectors of society mean that they contribute to the reconstitution of the social world because the effect that the innovations have in society are significant (Mansell, 2012:34). There are two periods in history that clearly captured the concept of information technology innovations and their effect on systematic social change characterizing information society. The first was during the late 1970s extending to the 1980s. Alvin Toffler stated that the world had been shaped by three key waves including the agricultural revolution, industrial revolution and information revolution. All these three forms of revolutions were heavily influenced by technological innovations especially on the tools and equipment of use, and the methodologies that were implemented during this time. The second phase occurred recently starting from the mid-1990s when information and communications merged to bring about a new sort society. Computer communications that include text communications and email among others inspired new society where people moved from depending on physical communication to computer communications through the Internet in different areas of economy, education and democratic processes (Lyon, 1998:3). The economic aspect Information society emphasizes on the growth of the economy based on informational activities. For instance, it emphasizes that the gross national product (GNP) can be increased or accounted for by information businesses. This means that at one point, it can be stated that the achievement of an information economy has been reached. Once information activity takes up a larger part of economic activity, then the information society comes up. Information society emphasizes on the primary and secondary information sectors of the economy. The primary information sector is prone to direct economic valuation because it is related to readily available market prices. The secondary information sector, on the other hand, is not related to issues of the market price but is essential to the organizations of modern day. This involves the informational activities within organizations including private and public organizations. The informational activities include issues of personnel management and research and development aspects among others. Using these aspects, it is possible to consider a country such as the United State of America as an information-based economy because half of its economy is accounted for by the combined informational sectors (Porat, 1977:43). An information society is one whose major sectors of the economic activity are from information goods and service provision. As such, the economic quantification can be done as an important aspect of information societies. As such, to understand important conceptions of information society, people have turned to Machlup and Porat, two critical authors that have contributed to the economic aspect as one of the most essential aspects of information societies. Therefore, the information society idea emphasizes that information activities are significant in the growth of economy for any society that considers itself an information society (Machlup, 1962:396). Occupational aspect This aspect of information society is most favoured by sociologists. It is associated with the work of Daniel Bell (1973) who theorized the post-industrial society, which when analysed is synonymous with information society. This aspect is analysed over a certain period and patterns of change that occur though this time (Webster & Puoskari, 2003:93). The most important emphasis of information society in this aspect is that when different aspects of occupation are found in information work, then information society is formed. The information society is characterised by the rise of the service sector employment rather than the manufacturing employment characteristic of past societies or pre-industrial and industrial societies. The reduction of manual jobs and the increase of white-collar jobs represent the occupational aspect in information society since it represents an aspect of information activities. The raw material or non-manual labour is information. Therefore, the increase of informational work or work created from information activities leads to information societies. For example, Japan, Western Europe and North America are considered as examples of information societies. These societies are highly characterized by less manual jobs and more white-collar jobs. Approximately 70 percent of the workforce in these societies is found in the service sector of the economy where white-collar occupations exist. In addition, they rely on technology for most of their sectors showing the importance of information activities in their economies. As such, they emphasize on the effect of information activities on occupations, which shows that occupation is an important aspect of information societies. Therefore, occupational change is the marker of an information society (Webster & Puoskari, 2003:93). The spatial aspect The information society idea emphasizes on space as one of the most important aspects. It emphasizes that information networks that connects people in different locations has profound effects on the organization space and time. Information networks have become an important aspect in social organization and has emphasized that these networks can reduce space and time especially with regard to communication. The centrality of information networks that have the ability to link different locations between offices, towns, regions and continents have become essential in the modern-day world as people increasingly depend on information and communication to run different sectors and do different activities not just in the places they occupy but also places that are far away from where they are. As such, informational networks have created a wired society where national, international and global spheres provide an information pull to every home and office and to mobile individuals, thereby connecting many people regardless of the places they occupy at any particular pint in time. In the modern world, people are connected to networks of different sorts and the networks are expanding their capacities and capabilities in huge ways. Accessing data across different continents especially through the internet has enabled people to integrate through information networks at both personal levels and organizational levels. As such, the relationships that have been established in the modern-day world between people and organizations throughout the world are maintained through information networks that support communication and transfer of important data between people and organizations. This means that spatial occupation and maintenance of constant communication and reach could be difficult without the information networks as emphasized by the concept of information society. The information society idea emphasizes that electronic highways have caused a new emphasize on information flows important in the modern-day world. This has led to the revision of time and space relations (Machlup, 1962:396). For example, the world today is not conceived in terms of physical boundaries that were important in past societies. Because of cyberspace, the Internet and information networks, the physical boundaries between countries has become less important because people can communicate and relate, and organizations can conduct businesses and transfer funds without physically crossing these boundaries. Academic researchers no longer have to travel from one university to the other to consult because this can be done over the Internet. Business organizations do not need to transport their managers from one continent to the next to supervise the activities of the organizations in their branches because this can be done through computer communications. As such, this has transformed the social order and brought about a revolutionary change, which characterizes the concept of information society (Machlup, 1962:396). It cannot be denied that information networks have enabled instantaneous communications around the globe. News coverage has become immediate and real-time relationships have been established between countries, corporations and people in different places of the world. As such, the information activities have contributed to major changes in the world especially affecting the spatial aspects where physical boundaries have become less important because they no longer prevent people from engaging in activities that would have otherwise been difficult in the past when informational networks and important developments such as the Internet were not present. This explains the emphasis of the concept of information society on spatial aspects (Leadebeater, 1999:24). Cultural aspect The cultural aspect is an important aspect in information society idea, and is the most acknowledged rather than measured. From the pattern of people’s everyday lives and activities, it is clear that there is an extraordinary increase in information circulation in different social spheres. The effects of information activities have affected the behaviours and beliefs of people today compared to the past where the access of information was mostly local rather that international or global. The extensive use of television, radio and the internet since the mid-1950s has majorly affected the behaviours, beliefs and actions of people throughout the world. As such, people are exposed to video, audio technologies and other computerized information services. Advertising has become digital, music, poetry, dram, education and comedy are all accessible to people easily throughout the world. As such, informational flows have helped people access fashion, education, politics, entertainment and business throughout the world affecting their belief systems and behaviours that determine how the act in different circumstances. Because of information networks and flows the availability of cheap and fashionable clothing, other aspects of lifestyles and ways of affording them have created contemporary cultures that appreciate information content. Contemporary culture has become heavily depended on information than in the past. The media-saturated environment has encouraged the exchange and reception of messages from different places, thereby affecting the ways of living in the modern-day world (Lister, Dovey, Giddings, Grant & Kelly, 2003:11). Because of the information flows, signs come from different places and directions, and are so different, contradictory and fast changing that sticking to one particular culture has become difficult because of the demands of the current influences of life. As such, the knowledge that people gain through direct experience has declined considerably and has led to a scenario where signs do not represent something or someone but a passing reality. People appreciate the situation that information networks and flow have brought about they have formed a culture based on the information that they get from it. This represents the culture as an important aspect of information society (Lash & Urry, 1994:32). In what sense is the information society idea problematic? The information society idea just as the knowledge society and other similar ideas is that they introduce the belief that a new type of society is created. The information society idea creates this notion by showing that information activities completely change the society into something advanced that has not been seen before. Critics have argued that this impression creates a significant discontinuity showing the current society is completely different compared to society in the past. Despite the fact that the concept of information society presents certain truths about how information and technology has changed the society, it is important to note that uprooting the modern-day society from the past society is erroneous. The current changes even in the use of information and technology reflect the past inadequacies and the steps taken to address those inadequacies that have significantly contributed to the formation of the information society. Therefore, the information society cannot be understood by discontinuing it from the past (May, 2002:32). Another problem with the concept of information society regards the ability to distinguish information society from other societies. An important question to that comes up regard the issue of how much information and technology are enough to qualify for an information society and how does one measure this? This is a problem because it creates confusion to the measurement and associated difficulty of ascertaining the amount of technological scale that qualifies a society as an information society. The proponents of information society have ignored this issue and left people to assume that when new technologies are introduced, then they have formed an information society. Therefore, it is important to note that this is one of the problem areas that the concept of information technology leaves to the interpretation of individual persons. Another problem that is related to the concept of information society regards the use of the term information network. The application and use of information networks is an important factor in conceiving an information society. However, it raises several important questions. First, why should the presence of food networks lead to information society? What makes an information network a network? What constitutes a network? These questions raise another question regarding whether technology or information flows is the most important aspect in defining information society. These questions have no answers, in addition to the fact that an argument could be made that information networks have been around for a very long time, raise an important problem regarding the concept of information society (Toffler, 1981:64). In conclusion, the term information society refers to has been used widely both in academia and other fields in society. The most common definition of information society emphasizes on technological innovation. The term refers to society where the creation, distribution and use of information are the most important aspect of economic, cultural, technological, occupational and spatial activities. This definition outlines the main aspects of the information society idea discussed above. Some of the problems of the concept of information society include discontinuing information society from the past society, lack of proper mechanisms to distinguish information society from other societies and the problems of information networks. 4. Critically assess the different forms of convergence that are emerging in the new media environment. The world has witnessed major revolutions that have immensely changed humanity. These revolutions have been experienced in areas of agriculture, industry and technology. In agriculture, the Agrarian revolution tremendously changed the ideology behind farming whereas the Industrial revolution brought radical changes in the industries. The introduction of internet, computing and information technologies has significantly changed the world. The new frontier in technological revolution is media convergence. In this paper, we will critically assess the different forms of convergence that are coming up in the new media environment. Firstly, we will examine the various definitions of media convergence, and then proceed to assess the forms of convergence. Secondly, we will look at its impacts and then give a conclusion. It is pertinent, before examining the various definitions that have been advanced in favor of the term media convergence, that we understand the term new media. New media refers to the modern technological advancements that have been realized in the technology and media world. It may refer to the processes, the applications, the methodologies, or the physical gadgets. Smartphones and iPads are therefore seen as gadgets that are representative of the new media notion while applications such as social media are also perceived as new media. What then is media convergence? The term media convergence is ambiguous. This is because it denotes a wide range of meanings and cannot be said to have a strict textbook meaning (Tim, 2010:32). As such, various authors and scholars have advanced several definitions of the concept. Media convergence, according to Richard Gershon, can be defined as the merging of media, which were previously autonomous or distinct to create a new media dispensation (Brown, 2005:75). It means bringing together various technological platforms into one media platform. These technological platforms include software applications such as animations, the internet, and new technologies such as the Smartphone technology. Media convergence in the new media environment can also be defined as the piecing together, or the interlinking, of computing and Information Communication Technologies (ICTs). It is also defined as the synchronizing of media content that has existed since the internet came into existence, digitalization of information technology, and remodeling of old media into a format that is new (Tim, 2010:93). In the above definitions, convergence is understood as the bringing together of different media platforms, especially the conversion of old type media into new type media. These definitions, however, are just one side of the concept of media convergence. The term convergence has been labeled as an elastic term as it has many different meanings depending on how it is used and the time it is applied. According to Henry Jenkins, a renowned blogger and author, the term media convergence simply means how media content travels across the various media platforms that are in existence, the linking together of media industries, and the behavior of the media consumer (Jenkins, 2006:45). Jenkins’s definition captures the basics of media convergence, that is, the joining together of media platforms and technologies. However, it also introduces another dimension, the media consumer. The introduction of the media consumer dimension gives the concept of media convergence a completely new meaning. According to Jenkins, the desires of the consumer have a lot to do with the shaping up of new media and consequently the convergence of new media. This is because players in the media industry, such as media conglomerates and other owners, have to take into account what the customer really wants before they can make decisions that will touch on media convergence (Jenkins, 2006:45). For instance, if the customer today desires a gadget that incorporates internet, video and camera technology, then media businesses in the distinct fields of internet, photography and video will be driven by that desire to merge together in a bid to address the customer’s needs. Jenkins, therefore, concluded in his argument that media content, its circulation, and the convergence of media ultimately depends not only on the desires of the consumer, but also on his active participation. As such, Jenkins advises, convergence of media platforms and technology occurs within the confines of the brains of the consumer, and not through media gadgets and appliances (Jenkins, 2006:65). This definition and description has a consumer participatory approach and represents a shift from the traditional definition of media convergence, and gives the consumer a central role in the determination of the ideology of convergence. Having looked at the various proposed definitions of media, it is paramount that we also examine the historical background of media convergence as well explore the extent to which media convergence has taken place. The concept of media convergence has been in existence from as early as the 1970s when media players discovered the possibility that information can be stored and disseminated in a digital format (Baldwin et.al, 1996:34). At that time, two media scholars, Ithiel de Sola Pool and Nicholas Negroponte advanced the ideas that media convergence can be realized. Ithiel gave a definition of convergence, which ideally fits to the modern definition. He defined media convergence as the ‘blurring of lines between media’. According to Ithiel, the boundaries between media platforms such as telephone, radio, telegraph, and television must not occur if their convergence was to be achieved (Negroponte, 1995:82). The ideology that media could actually be converged progressed into the 1980s and 90s. It gained ground because more and more scientists acknowledged the fact that the transition of old media into new media and consequently the integration of outdated technologies into new content were not only possible, but also necessary. This integration became possible through the process of remediation, which became very significant in media convergence. At that time, convergence was thought of as the remediation of three technological pillars including the computer, the telephone, and the television (Carpentier, 2011:53). In recent times, the concept of media convergence has widely grown. The term media is now conveniently referred to as multimedia in reference to the joining of multiple technological and media platforms. These media forms include video, still images or photography, music, and text. The term ‘hypermedia’ has also been developed and this indicates the extent to which the idea of media convergence has grown. Hypermedia refers to the application and presentation of media in links referred to as hypertext links. Media convergence has today reached levels beyond those envisaged back in the 20th century (Murdock, 2000:26). There are several and different forms, or types, of media convergence that have emerged in the new media environment. However, these forms can largely be classified into three categories. These are content convergence, technological convergence, and economic convergence (Murdock, 2000:63). Content convergence, the first form of media convergence, refers to the processes and procedures of integrating media and all its content. Content convergence is based on two broad factors including media content and the users of media. Media content convergence as a factor, which underlies content convergence, refers to the integrating of analog and outdated technologies into new media forms. This process is known as digitization. Digitization adjusts and aligns the content that is in old media to fit it into a new media form that is coordinated with the trend and demands of the modern world. Media content conversion is not a one off process, but is an ongoing process that takes time and the participation of both the consumer and the media industry players and other corporate institutions (Baldwin et.al, 1996:92). According to Jenkins, content convergence as a process targets not only the media content, but also the media product and brand. The media users’ factor, also an underlying basis of content convergence, is primarily based on Jenkins’s definition of media convergence that introduced the concept of consumer participation as a major determinant of convergence. Jenkins, in his argument, emphasized that what goes on in the mind of the consumer or the user in this case is what actually determines media convergence. User convergence therefore denotes the merging of the ideas, thoughts, and activities of all users of media that actively shape the development and dissemination of media products and content (Jenkins, 2006:343). Technological convergence is the second form of media convergence. It is a general term used to describe the digitalization of media and all its content from a technological point of view. Technological convergence has three branches that include convergence of devices, network convergence, and the convergence of solutions. The first, convergence of devices, literally means joining the various functions of media into one device (Carpentier, 2011:65). This makes the distinct functions have a single similar function. It is what the scholar Ithiel defined as the blurring of lines or boundaries between different multiple media functions. The convergence of devices is also known as terminal convergence. This is primarily because of the role terminals, such as the telephone, radio, computer, and the television, play in the convergence concept (Brown, 2005:23). In the convergence of devices, the integration of two or more devices creates a new media function and consequently a new form of communication (Murdock, 2000:40). For instance, a cell phone device with an inbuilt radio and a video player is a good and practical example of a device that brings together multiple media function and creates a new and improved form of communication. The second form of technological convergence is the network convergence. It has been defined as the merging of technological platforms and media. This in effect makes both the media and the platform have an interoperability characteristic. The vision behind the ideology of network convergence is that one network will be multifunctional, that is, it will be able to carry and perform the functions of all the other networks. Network convergence, therefore, has also been defined as the merging of various networks such as cable, mobile, and the internet (Hay & Couldry, 2011:47). It has also been envisaged that network convergence will result to a network infrastructure that is standard. Convergence of solutions, the third form of technological convergence, refers to the merger between the convergence of devices and that of networks. Convergence of solutions also referred to as the convergence of services, thus brings together devices and networks (Dwyer, 2010:26). Economic convergence is the third broad category or form of media convergence. It refers to the merging of media platforms and content from a market viewpoint. Economic convergence has two forms that include market and regulatory convergence and corporate convergence. The first, market convergence, is a term used to denote the piecing together of the two major markets; the media market on one hand and Information Communication Technologies (ICT) and telecommunication market on the other (Hay & Couldry, 2011:63). Market convergence is usually a double phased process which involves the bringing together of the markets for ICT and telecommunication in phase one, and merging them with the media market in phase two (Murdock, 2000:54). Market convergence has thus been defined as the convergence of industries. This is because of the merger between two or more markets. The idea behind regulatory convergence under market convergence is that there needs to be a sound legal framework for convergence to be seamless. In many jurisdictions, legal regulations will determine the possibility of market convergence and consequently media convergence (Samuel, 2000). Laws such as the press law, consumer protection, competition protection, and the intellectual property rights tend to allow or prohibit convergence. Compliance to such laws is thus, in many instances, a prerequisite for economic convergence (Samuel, 2000:13). Regulatory convergence also implies the bringing together of not only the laws but also of authorities that enforce such laws. Corporate convergence, a part of economic convergence, addresses two things; the merging of interests of institutions in the media industries on one hand, and the actual integration of these corporate organizations in the industries of telecommunication and media. Corporate convergence can be examined from an institutional point of view as well as from the proprietary standpoint. Proprietary standpoint involves the collaboration of independent businesses in the media industry. Organizational or institutional convergence also borrows from the same premise of corporate organizations dealing in different trades integrating with each other. In both forms of corporate convergence, the integration provides an opportunity for increased synergy and a common goal of creating, promoting and disseminating media content (Murdoch, 2000:52). Corporate convergence depends largely on the cultures and organizational structures of the individual companies merging. A careful consideration of the cultures of each organization forming the merger is very important as it eventually gives corporate convergence relevance. It is therefore important to emphasize that corporate convergence, just like technological and economic convergence, serves as an impetus for the concept of media convergence. It also fosters innovation (Negroponte, 1995:93). The idea of convergence has come of age and media scientists and researchers still expect that the media industry will still experience increased changes as far as convergence is concerned. Media convergence has without doubt changed not only the landscape of media, but also the mindset of the consumer. Its impacts have been wide and far-reaching. Due to the concept of media convergence, the efficiency of the functions of consumer has greatly been enhanced. For instance, the integration of multiple media functions of radio, video, and internet access on a single mobile device enables the consumer to efficiently enjoy the functionalities of each of the distinct media. Corporate organizations in the media industry are also realigning their strategies and cultures so as to create new products and services which are a product of convergence and which eventually attract the end user who is the consumer. However, media convergence also has its fair share of challenges. Firstly, the concept of convergence is largely experimental (Baldwin et.al, 1996:48). The merging of various media functions into one device sometimes creates a device that consumers find complicated and difficult to use. Therefore, the device may not serve the desired purpose of convergence. Secondly, convergence also at times renders a converged terminal or device less functional. This is because consumers deem most functionalities of that device as unnecessary. Lastly, convergence also has its implications on regulation. Convergence acts within legal regulatory frameworks of a particular jurisdiction. However, certain forms of media convergence, such as corporate convergence, may infringe on some regulations such as that of competition protection (Samuel, 2000:57). In conclusion, media convergence refers to the integration or joining together of media content and technological platforms. It actively involves bringing on board various distinct media applications and merging them into one device. Media convergence has also been defined as the end product of the thoughts and desires of the consumer. This is because it is the consumer who eventually decides what form of media convergence organizations will pursue. Convergence of media content and platforms has greatly affected the media industry and the consumer’s lifestyle by extension. Its effects will continue to be felt with every thought of media convergence. 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