Journalism, Mass Media and Communication - Essay Example

Journalism, Mass Media and Communication Journalists write opinion articles in order to provoke people into thinking more deeply about a topical issue. The issue of binge drinking often appears in the press, usually after some particularly tragic or outrageous news incident relating to drunkenness, or following the publication of academic studies or government actions relating to the social problems that binge drinking can cause. This paper analyzes two such opinion articles (Hickie, 2009, p. 1) and Blake, 2010, p.1) and considers in particular the types of rhetorical argumentation that they use. Rhetoric is used to persuade people and it can be applied in numerous disciplines and subject areas. Three distinct approaches can be used in persuasive writing: appeals through ethos, pathos and logos, which are terms derived from the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, and which refer to morals, emotions or reason respectively. The two articles are compared, showing similarities and differences in the way they use these appeals, and then also instances where they uses fallacies. The principle of ethos as used in the study of rhetoric can be defined as “persuasion through moral character” (Cockcroft and Cockcroft, 2005, p. 4). In modern English the word word ethics is used in connection with making choices between good and bad actions. In rhetoric it refers to the person who is attempting to persuade others through the written or spoken word. Ethos is defined in rhetoric as containing two separate concepts, namely personality and stance. (Cockcroft and Cockcroft, 2005, p. 28) The personality aspect deals with how the writer presents him or herself, while stance relates to the attitude that the writer has towards the audience or readership. In the first article the author’s name and qualifications are given at the end of the article: “Professor Ian Hickie is the executive director of Sydney University’s Brain and Mind Research Institute” (Hickie, 2009, p.1). The academic titles “Professor” and “executive director” imply that this person is a senior member of a respected institution, with high qualifications and important responsibilities in Australian society. The purpose of this description is to inspire confidence, and give the impression that this person knows more than the average individual, and is an expert, especially in the field of the human brain. The writer launches into his article with a confident statement about “really smart countries” and then issues a clear instruction: “To achieve that aim, we need to....” Another instruction, in a somewhat gentler tone is given later such as “It’s time we really took some hard choices...” There is an even gentler suggestion towards the end: “let’s do something...” followed by a very strong direct command in the last line: “Lift the age to 19 and make a real difference now” (Hickie, 2009, p.1). This pattern shows a strong ethos of a teacher telling people what to do, using both direct instruction and more subtle persuasion, which is an example of his skill in changing his stance in relation to the readership in order to appear both authoritative and considerate. In contrast to this high status individual, the writer of the second article, (Blake, 2010, p.1) is described without any title: “Joshua Blake is a Bachelor of Arts student at the University of Queensland.” Interestingly the author also makes specific reference to his own status in defence of a statement that he makes about Australian binge drinking culture: “How do I know this? I’m a 19-year-old who regularly sees my peers getting drunk...” (Blake, 2010, p.1). The age is cited here, because the author wants to make the point that he has direct experience of the issue of age-related binge drinking connected with rites of passage in student life. The appeal to ethos here is just as strong as the one made in the Hickie article, but it is more explicit and related to direct experience of the issue, rather than academic study of it. Both articles are successful in establishing a credible persona for the author, but the Blake article is more effective because the use of the first person. The writer’s openness about personal matters creates a more intimate bond with the reader, and inspires trust in him as a person, rather than just in the professional role of a professor. The second type of rhetorical appeal, that of pathos, is all about the way that the audience reacts to a text emotionally. It is a technique used by writers and public speakers to arouse the reader and make him or her feel some sensations. The author tries to represent the points being discussed in a vivid way, and to tinge them with positive or negative connotations so that the audience is carried along with the tide of the writer’s thoughts. By using common experiences, and fitting in with the values that people have, the writer hopes to win people over (Cockcroft and Cockcroft, 2005 p. 56). Pathos is a good technique to use if a writer wants to make people change their behavior in some way, because the triggering of emotions can be a more powerful and memorable experience than just the reading and accepting of neutral facts. The Hickie article uses the term “schoolies” (Hickie, 2009, p.1) which is a colloquial word for the time when students celebrate graduating from school. This word has specifically Australian connotations, since it is not widely used outside Australia. The word “schoolies” creates a feeling of familiarity with Australian readers, and perhaps nostalgia for those whose graduation from school lies in the medium or distant past. Use of this word demonstrates that the author knows and appreciates local customs. It is quite noticeable that there is very little appeal through pathos in this article, and this fits with the cool, academic persona that is being presented. One emotive term is used for politicians: “there has been little political stomach for the task” (Hickie, 2009, p.1) and this may reflect the writer’s medical background. It also reveals a combative attitude, suggesting that he thinks politicians lack courage, since the reference to having a stomach, or a strong stomach, is a figurative way of expressing the ability to deal with matters that are difficult and/or unpleasant. The author presents himself as decisive and bold, speaking about things “that will have a real impact” or “make a real difference now.” (Hickie, 1009, p.1) This is not a very effective strategy, because it underplays the difficulty of bringing about concrete political change, and makes the writer appear somewhat pompous and all-knowing. A much better use is made of pathos in the Blake article. The title is a very good example since the statement “My name is Australia and I’m an alcoholic” (Blake, 2010, p.1) is a direct quotation from the protocol of the “Alcoholics Anonymous” organization. It is normally used by people who join such a group in order to work their way out of alcohol addiction. Quotation of this phrase immediately makes the reader think of the negative consequences of alcoholism. The substitution of the word “Australia” instead of a person’s name paints a very dramatic picture of a whole nation in trouble and needing help. This is a masterly use of rhetoric, because it creates a vivid image to illustrate an abstract concept (Australia’s problem with binge drinking) in a concrete and memorable way. The allusion is picked up again in the last sentence, with the words “The first step, however, is to admit there is a problem.” (Blake, 2010, p.1). This too, is a reference to the Alcoholics Anonymous protocols. Cockcroft and Cockcroft (1992, 2005, p. 115) state that the choice of words in any text can help to steer the argument towards ethos, pathos or logos and it is clear in the Blake text that words with emotive connotations are used to evoke alternately both positive and negative reactions to binge drinking. He refers to heavy drinkers as those who “get drunk and party hard on a regular basis” (Blake, 2010, p.1) and this is the language of the youth drinking scene. The phrase “party hard” for example, is an expression of pride used by young people to show their stamina and flouting of authority figures such as parents. The writer speaks this youth language fluently, but also makes a deliberate choice to use very adult and conservative language when he says “we are labelled boring and immature when we don’t partake.” (Blake, 2010, p.1). The informal contraction “don’t” is juxtaposed with the rather old-fashioned verb “partake.” The point the writer is making, through the content of the ideas and through the choice of vocabulary that he uses, that it is a good thing to experiment with different styles and expectations in moderation, rather than to belong exclusively to one or other extreme camp, whether this be drinkers and non-drinkers, or immature teenagers and boring adults. Readers feel youthful one moment, and mature the next, as they read the text, and this is the emotional effect that the writer intends. He wants the readers to imagine themselves in both positions and then come to a balanced conclusion. When a writer moves away from emotional language and starts to use a serious and plain style this is usually a sign that there is a move towards the logos style of speaking. This is a kind of argumentation often present in legal language (Cockcroft and Cockcroft, 1992, p. 116) or when particular scientific or academic matters are cited. This style is most clearly seen in the Hickie article which describes in technical terms the workings of the human brain: “It is the frontal part of the brain that regulates complex decision making, forward planning and inhibition of impulsive behaviours that is undergoing final development at this age.” (Hickie, 2009, p.1) The writer refers to two types of hard evidence: “The evidence from animal models of teenage intoxication, and recent brain imaging studies among teenagers who binge drink” (Hickie, 2009, p.1) but does not quote the numbers of participants, or the exact, measurable results. Because of the writer’s high academic status, he may not feel the need to prove his statements, and may even imply that he himself has been conducting these studies. Nevertheless, the point of mentioning this evidence is to suggest that science proves certain facts. He then suggests that a strategy of raising the legal drinking age as a way of bringing benefits. The logical process is that he has identified a problem, cited evidence of it, suggested a solution, and now is asking for support for that solution. In the Blake article there is also some reference to other studies: “Research this week shows that alcohol abuse is costing Australians $36 billion a year.” (Blake, 2010, p.1) The bold blue text on the web page indicates a hyperlink where readers can follow up the facts for themselves. Another hyperlink to “government campaigns” achieves the same aim. In contrast to Hickie, Blake rejects any political solution “Of course, it’s unreasonable to suggest prohibition or similar policy as a solution, nor would it realistically solve the problem” (Blake, 2010, p.1) and this shows the writer considering, and then rejecting, authoritarian arguments such as that of Hickie. Blake focuses on the initial starting point of the issue, namely admitting there is a problem, and advocates this as a starting point, whereas Hickie skips the deliberation and goes straight to a recommendation. In weighing up the effectiveness of the two articles it is important to note that Hickie uses deductive reasoning, starting with his hypothesis about how the brain works, and then deducing that changes need to occur to protect the brain. (“deductive reasoning,” 2011, p.1) Blake uses inductive reasoning, (“inductive reasoning”, 2011, p.1) looking at his own experience and drawing logical conclusions. The stronger, more authoritarian tone and imagery of the Hickie article is more likely to appeal older and more conservative readers, and it may in fact alienate younger readers who do indulge in too much drinking. Blake’s more personal and searching style, may appeal to younger and more open-minded readers. On balance, since both authors write soberly, avoiding fallacies and suggesting solutions, they are successful pieces, but the argument presented by Blake is the more effective, because of the ethos he presents of a thoughtful, open-minded teenager who understands the problem at first hand. References Blake, J. August 26, 2010. My name is Australia and I’m an alcoholic. The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: . http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/my-name-is-australia-and-im-an-alcoholic-20100826-13tqi.html Cockcroft, R. & Cockcroft, S. 2005. Persuading People: an introduction to rhetoric. 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan. England. Hickie, I. Nov. 19, 2009. We must raise the legal age of drinking to 19. National Times. Available online at: http://www.nationaltimes.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/we-must-raise-the-legal-age-of-drinking-to-19-20091119-indj.html “Inductive Reasoning”. 2011. Anonymous online article available at: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/types_reasoning/induction.htm “Deductive Reasosning”. 2011. Anonymous article available online at: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/types_reasoning/deduction.htm http://fallacyfiles.org 2011. Website on fallacy. Read More