The Role of Age in Second Language Acquisition - Annotated Bibliography Example

Linguistics annotated bibliography The role of age in second language acquisition Introduction The aim of this proposal paper is to identify and discuss the role of age in the acquisition of second language. Without a doubt, age has an effect on the level of proficiency a learner of second language attains as well as the effect on the processes involved in the acquisition of second language. It is nevertheless, indistinguishable whether the consequences of age in second language acquisition are similar to those concerned with the acquisition of the primary language, where a significant period in which a person may have acquired a first language has been well-known. Many previous research studies dealing with this topic have primarily focused on the possibilities of a significant period in the acquisition of second language. I can assert from my personal experience that there exists a period within which second languages are easier to acquire. Exposure to materials or environment that is related to the second language can make it easier to acquire second language especially during early childhood. However, it is difficult to acquire the second language when in puberty or as an adult (DeKeyser, 500). Literature review The notion pertaining to the significant period in acquisition of second language is not generally accepted, since there are numerous studies that oppose this hypothesis. Regardless of the position that is taken by any individual, I believe that age plays an essential role in the acquisition of the second language. In my early school days, I acquired English to an important extend simply as a result of being exposed to it through television programs. After puberty, I tried to acquire similar results with other second languages, but I was not successful. Based on the results from empirical studies, researcher, as Tohidian stated (2003:1) have agreed on three major impacts of age in the acquisition of second language, the effects on the rate of second language learning, the effect on the process of second language acquisition and lastly the effect on the learners’ accomplishment and definitive attainment in the second language acquisition. The study topic is essential to persons who are willing to study second language. This proposal will be based on identifying the effects of age in the acquisition of second language. Up to date, only a few studies on the outcome of age on the subsequent language acquisition process have been conducted, and most of the studies identify the method of grammar acquisition (Bialystok, 117). For instance Cancino et al (1978:3) identified the progression of acquisition in moderator structures such as interrogatives and demonstrated that adults go throughout the same way of acquisition as children. Research method I will select a group of Korean or Chinese immigrants of different ages or class levels that arrived in the United States between the ages of one to twenty years and have stayed for over fifteen years. I will utilize the grammatical judgment tests to determine their proficiency in second language acquisition (Bialystok, 118).The students will be exposed to the same learning environment and teaching methods. Each age group will be pre-tested at the beginning of the study period and then tested again after the stipulated period of study. The aim of the study will be to identify if age impacts on the acquisition of knowledge on second language. Part two of annotated bibliography Bialystok, E. (1997). The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second language research, 13(2), 116-137. The author examined the evidence that have revealed the sensitive period associated with acquisition of the second language. The author is able to conduct two small scale studies with an attempt to explain the various associated issues. The author reveals that language structures within the first and second language are the most vital factors affecting acquisition. The authors focus on the length of stay of the native speaker rather than the age introduced to the second language. The author concludes that age may not be the only factor that plays a significant role in the acquisition of the second language. Even though I support the author’s idea that language acquisition is determined by factors other than age, I believe that age plays an important factor in the acquisition of second language. The sample utilized in the study was sufficient enough to reveal factor other time. In addition, the writer failed to take into account the various cultural and social contexts associated with the study. The source will offer significant data pertaining to the effect of age on the acquisition of secondary data. In addition, the article has been effective the literature on additional factors that affect acquisition of second language. The article is universal and offers effective methods that can be utilized in my project. Collier, V. P. (1987). Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes. TESOL quarterly, 21(4), 617-641. Summary The authors analyzed the length of time needed for 1548 students with limited proficiency in English language to become proficient for academic purposes while receiving instructions basing on all the subject areas. Variables that was included in the study entailed arrival age, proficiency levels at the time of arrival, number of years of schooling in English as well as the basic math and literary skills in native language upon arrival. Content area and second language achievement were measured based on student’s performance tests in language, social sciences and mathematics. Even though it took children less time to reach proficiency in some of the subjects identified, it was identifies that at least 4-8 years was needed for all years to register proficiency in the second language. I agree with the author’s explanation that it takes less time for children to register proficiency in learning second language as compared to adults. The methods utilized by the author are effective and the sample size is sufficient. The author utilizes various variables such as arrival age, proficiency levels at the time of arrival, number of years of schooling in English as well as the basic math and literary skills in native language upon arrival. The conclusion provided by the author is justified by the results. The source will effectively fit into my research topic as it supports the fact that age affects acquisition of second language and focuses on the various effective methods to support the argument. The article fills the literature gap and asserts focuses on the time required for an individual to have proficiency in learning second language. Collier, V. P. (1987). The Effect of Age on Acquisition of a Second Language for School. The author revealed in his study that acquisition of the second language was affected by age and age related factors. The author was able to identify that older students were more efficient learners of second language due to their advanced cognitive development compared to children. However, this advantage only lasted for the first year, with children having extended proficiency in the learning of the first language. The authors were able to identify that the impact of age declines over time as the learners become effective in the second language. I support the author’s assertion that acquisition of second language is affected by both age and age related factors. It is indeed true that children find it easier to study second language as compared to adults. The author is able to employ adequate controls for bias as well as research methods. The authors’ offer effective conclusion that provides answers to the research questions that were provided. The source fits effectively into my research since it explains on the role of age in the acquisition of second language. The author employs effective study methods that help explain the effects of age. The article is however, not universal as it only covers a single factor that affect language acquisition. DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in second language acquisition, 22(04), 499-533. The author explains that children are known to be proficient in learning the second language through domains mechanisms that are considered domain specific. Adult however, are unable to learn the second language without focusing on alternative mechanisms and structures drawing especially on their problem solving capacities in order to study the second language. The finding of the study reveals that only those adults those posses verbal analytical abilities are able to acquire proficiency in the second language and that such factors may not determine the acquisition of the second language by children. A study based on 57 adult Hungarian-speaking immigrants revealed that very few adults were able to score within the range of child arrival on the grammatically judgment tests and that the few who did had reduced levels of verbal analytical abilities. The study replicated the findings of Newport and Johnson (1989) and provides an explanation on what was not reveled in their study. I support the author’s argument that teaching and approaches to second language differ based on age. His explanation that adults utilize different mechanisms than children in studying language is justified. The methods utilized in the study are justified and entails utilizing of grammatically judgment tests that are related to language. The source however fails to put into account the different cultural and social contexts in explaining the acquisition of second language. The source however provides a mean of studying the effect of age on studying second language. The subjects and the sample size selected are sufficient enough to provide conclusive data as to why age affects acquisition of second language. Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of memory and language, 41(1), 78-104. The research evaluates the age constraints for the acquisition of second language. The research subjects were 240 native Korean speakers who differed based on age of arrival in the US between the ages of one to twenty three years of age, but were all experienced in English language. The mean range of residence utilized in the study is fifteen years. Their English pronunciation was evaluated by having listeners rate them on the degree of foreign assent. English morphosyntax was evaluated by utilizing 144-item grammatically judgment test. Grammatically judgment tests decreased steadily with increase in the age of arrival. The results also indicated that English morphosyntax varied as a function of the years of education that the Korean participants had achieved. I agree with the author’s argument that acquisition of second language varies with age and that older adult finds it challenging to acquire second language as compared to the children. Korean immigrants who entered the United States at the age of one were able to acquire second language at a higher rate compared to their counterparts at the age of twenty three. The author however, fails to identify personal abilities that may affect second language acquisition at different ages. The sample size was sufficient and there was adequate bias control by the researcher. The limitations for this study are that it only focused on age as the only effect on the acquisition of second language. The source provides vital information that can fit effectively into my study subject. The author utilizes methods that are evidence based in collecting his data which justifies the source as an effective one. The article fills the literature gap as it offers more information pertaining to the effects of age in studying second language. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive psychology, 21(1), 60-99. The author evaluates the effect of critical periods in the acquisition of second language. He hypothesizes that second language could be acquired within a critical period that extends from early infancy to puberty. The study was done by comparing the English proficiency forty six native Chinese speakers who arrived in the US between the age of three and thirty nine and who have lived in the US between three to twenty six years by the time of testing. The subjects were tested by utilizing a grammatically judgment task as well as structures of the English grammar. Both t-tests and correlation analyses demonstrated strong and clear advantages for the first arrivals over those who followed. The findings revealed low performance after puberty and high performance before puberty. The study concluded that age played a critical role in the acquisition of second language. The authors were able to frame the research questions in an effective manner and employed appropriate research methods that covered various ages of the immigrants. The author was able to build his research on the previous studies which had identified the effect of age in the acquisition of second language. The theoretical framework utilized in the study was appropriate and the author was able to communicate his methods and finings clearly. The author was able to employ qualitative research methods that offered better explanation pertaining to the research question. The research sample was sufficient with the authors employing appropriate methods to minimize research bias. The authors however failed to take into consideration the various differing cultural and social contexts even though the conclusion was justified by the results. The source will be important in my studies due to its approach on studying the effect of age on the acquisition of second language. The impact of age was shown not to be an inadvertent result of variations in experiences with motivation, English, American identification or self consciousness. The utilization of various structure of grammar enabled the authors to come up with effective results. Lightbown, P. M., Spada, N., Ranta, L., & Rand, J. (1993). How languages are learned (Vol. 2). Oxford: Oxford University Press. The authors wrote the book as a way of revealing information to teachers on the acquisition of second learning based on theoretical views and research findings. The book was originally based on materials that the author created for workshops that targeted experienced teachers. The author presents various factors that affect teaching of second language by basing on various research findings. For example, the author presents two classroom excerpts to represent a teacher utilizing a communicative approach and the one utilizing audiolingual approach. The information obtained applies to both the classroom situation and the society in general. I agree with the author that motivation is another factor that can affect second language acquisition. The author’s presentation covers nearly all aspects of language learning and presents various research findings that have been carried out in the society and in classroom situation. The authors have succeeded in presenting both research findings and theoretical views to experienced language teachers. The research methods utilized in the book is appropriate since a lot of classroom tests are presented. The authors have taken into account the various cultural and social aspects in explaining the acquisition of language. The sample sizes utilized in various researches that are carried out are sufficient enough to offer better results. The book provides an important source for my research as it covers the various factors that affect acquisition of second language and moreover, the role of age. The source is quite different from other sources since it covers all aspects that are associated with the acquisition of second language. The source has filled the gap in literature by revealing the classroom aspects that affect acquisition of second language. The book is vital source towards by research as it explains conclusively the role of age in the acquisition of second language. Ortega, L. (2014). Understanding second language acquisition. Routledge. The author argued that whether an individual grow up with a single or several languages during their early years of life, many of them will be able to learn a second, heritage or foreign language in their later years. The author utilizes various tests to investigate the human capacity aimed at learning second languages in adolescent, childhood and adulthood. The book reveals individual, universal and social forces associated with the learning of second language and analyzes previous research findings on the same field. The author covers nearly all aspects that are associated with studying second language. I support the author’s argument that individuals are able to learn a second or foreign language in their later years even if they grow up with a single or several languages during their early years. The author however, fails to indicate the various issues that enable individuals to study second languages. He however, utilizes various tests and investigation with an attempt to reveal the human capacities that are associated with learning second language. Additionally, the author has failed to take into account the various cultural and social contexts that influence acquisition of second language. The source is effective for parents, students and teachers interested in teaching and learning second language. The author has included the age factor as one of the determinant in studying second language. Basing on my own experience and studies, I believe the source offers better investigation that can be incorporated into my studies. Perani, D., Paulesu, E., Galles, N. S., Dupoux, E., Dehaene, S., Bettinardi, V., ... & Mehler, J. (1998). The bilingual brain. Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121(10), 1841-1852. The authors carried a research on the age and proficiency of second language acquisition. The study revealed that functional imaging methods identify variations in the cerebral activation patterns that are often associated with the native language of the subject as compared to the second language. The authors indicated in their recent studies on bilingualism that auditory processing of stories in first language engages the temporoparietal cortex and temporal lobes more extensive than the second language. In the study however, the Italian subjects were able to second language even though late with a fair command of the language. The authors thereby concluded that pattern of brain activation could affect the proficiency level or the age of acquisition. The authors studied a group of English-Italian bilinguals who acquired the second language at the period of ten years as well as the set of Spanish-Catalan individuals who acquired the second language sooner than the age of four years. I support the study findings which reveals that, at least for a pair of first and second language that are fairly close, attaining proficiency is essential compared to acquisition age as an influence of the cortical representation. The authors use of observation of brain behavior offer effective study methods that can explain the factors that affect acquisition of second language. The study however fails to take into account the cultural and social context. The conclusions are however justified by the results. The information provided is significant for my research since it covers the aspect of age in and other related factors that affect achievement of second language acquisition. The article is able to fill the literature gaps as it reveals the response of the brain toward various learning situation. The method offers conclusive evidence to support my study. Tohidian, I., & Tohidian, E. (2009). Effects of age on second language acquisition. California Linguistic Notes, 34(2), 1-16. The author explains that there exist various differences among 2nd language learners. In the first language acquisition by young children, individual variations e.g. the foreign language being educated or across genders are largely overshadowed by outstanding similarities in terms of ultimate attainment and natural stages. However, 2nd language acquisition, personal variation have more of an effect on the learning process of second language and their roles have received substantial consideration in the recent years. Effective factor and learner’s beliefs are likely to have an undeviating effect on learning of second language but they may have a variety of wide-ranging factors relating to the capability and desire to learn. One of the most important areas of difference among the second language learners is age. The author collected information from the Vietnamese English learners and identified that age had an impact on epenthesis. The author asserts that numerous factors such as learner’s beliefs, age and native speaker proficiency may affect second language learning in various ways. I agree with the author that age is another important factor that influence learning of second language among the people and that the children often learn language at a faster pace than the adult when observed in equal measures. The research question was well framed by the author. The author expanded the knowledge on the existing knowledge on acquisition of second language. The theoretical framework of knowledge was appropriate and adequate. Moreover, the researcher communicated fully on the effect of age on acquisition of second language. The author took into account differing cultural and social contexts. Apart from age the author offer various other factors that affect acquisition of second language. The source is important since it explains how age affects the acquisition of second language that is the main question in my research. The source is different from the other since it explains other factors that affect language acquisition for example the abilities of an individual. The article is universal and can be effectively applied in my research proposal as it utilizes effective methods to acquire information pertaining to the main research question or topic. The author explains the effect of age on the rate and processes of second language learning as well as its effect on the ability of the learner to acquire native speaker level of proficiency. Read More