Key Elements of Design and Why These Are Important to the Production of Academically Rigorous - Research Paper Example

Advanced Study Skills in Geography (GEO2044) The key elements of research design and why these are important to the production of academically rigorous research This study seeks to identify the key elements of research design and considers their important in academically rigorous research. Research design is “the point where questions raised in theoretical or policy debates are converted into feasible research projects and research programmes that provide answers to these questions.” (Hakim, 2000, p.xi) Starting with a brief overview of the purpose and development of geographical research, its nature, characteristics and outline are described focusing on rigorous research. The role of a dissertation is also discussed, and identification of research design principles then lead onto a discussion of research methodology including the importance of safety and ethics. Original research in any discipline allows the researcher to make useful contributions to furthering the discipline itself and to humanity in general. In the past, Geography was not regarded as a serious research discipline until the latter half of the previous century when the Institute of British Geographers began promoting research interests of academics. (Johnston, 2006) And, the start of a rigorous level of research in Geography in the UK is identified with the quantitative revolution (or spatial science) arising out of a search to understand underlying principles in both physical and human geography. (Peet, 1998, p.110) Research into the relationship between geography and gender, and then culture, are more recent developments as is employing more humanistic research methods. "Research is a process of enquiry and discovery" (Kitchin, 2000). At a basic level, this means that research involves questioning and a process of seeking answers. But a thorough geographical study is more demanding. It could take on the form of empirical research in which data is gathered and analysed to validate or invalidate a hypothesis and a theory used to explain the phenomena. In this way, the research is focused “to provide an improved knowledge-base on the basis of which hypothesis may be confirmed, modified or refuted.” (Allan, 1991, p.165) So the “research discovers the factual, empirical basis…” (Peet, 1998, p.7) of a theory or else leads to the forming of one. The research data can be either quantitative or qualitative, and alternative to conducting own (primary) research, in secondary research existing data is obtained for the study instead. Academically rigorous research is therefore characterised by highly structured planning and organisation. The overall design or strategy usually has a logical structure that makes the research easy to carry out. This ensures all stages are carried out as planned and in view of the aim. The research strategy is fundamentally tied to a particular philosophical position because “methodological choices are, at heart, philosophical choices” (Flowerdew, 2005, p.12). The precise sequence and nature of each stage depends on the purpose but there are standard approaches especially if following the ‘scientific approach’ and studying physical geography. In this case, key elements of the research process could be as follows: Regardless, “all research in geography – whatever its philosophical stance – involves thinking about the relationships among methods, techniques, analysis and interpretation.” (Clifford, 2003, p.6) Thus, there are essential elements of research design such as topic identification, questioning, choice of quantitative/qualitative mix, intensive/extensive nature of research, use of primary/secondary data, sampling strategy etc. A well-designed project is easier to undertake and reduces the chances of encountering difficulties while undertaking it. On the nature of the research, this may be either intensive or extensive, the difference being that in intensive research design, “the emphasis is on describing a single case study or small number of case studies with the maximum amount of detail, and where generality is achieved through interpretation” (Clifford, 2003, p.1), whereas in extensive research design, “the emphasis is on generalizing from patterns in large ‘representative’ datasets, which are assumed to represent the outcome of some underlying causal regularity or process” (ibid). The write-up may take the form of a dissertation, which is “a report on an original piece of research” (Parsons, 2005, p.5), and “involves the acquisition and communication of knowledge… [characterized by] the scientific virtues of organization, precision and clarity” (ibid, p.3). Efficiency is important in getting this process done smoothly. Doing such a rigorous research for a dissertation can be challenging but also “one of the most stimulating parts of the course.” (Rogers, 2003, p.4) It is also important to maintain objectivity and avoid bias as, “A dissertation is an objective academic exercise and so requires objective reporting” (Kneale, 2003, ch.18). In geomorphology for example, objectivity “is the assurance of data reliability through the introduction of fixed rule-based procedures for obtaining information.” (Rhoads, 1996, p.21) If the research relates to a foreign culture or time, it may be inappropriate to apply alien standards and attitudes. Unsupported arguments and strong language should also be avoided “unless there is overwhelming evidence” (Kneale, 2003, ch.18). The topic of a dissertation is the first item that must be correctly set out after agreeing on the idea for the study, and the context of the study within the intellectual tradition made clear. The scope should neither be too wide nor impossible to collect data for. True research that can further the discipline is on topics that have been previously inadequately dealt with or not at all, in other words, in areas remaining unexplored, or deserving extension. The background information and literature review can justify the study being carried out by identifying the need. If a hypothesis is to be tested, it must also be clearly stated at the outset. The literature review, if done as “a thorough critical evaluation of existing research often leads to new insights by synthesizing previously unconnected ideas.” (Hart, 2001, p.1) and can also prove helpful in designing a suitable methodology. The research design then invariably follows once the purpose is clear or the research objectives are identified. So the design stage usually follows the question stage, and is followed by theory, method, analysis, findings, and conclusion. (course notes) The research design should be geared towards attaining these objectives. Thus, the design can vary according to the nature and objectives of the research and what would be considered appropriate, but certain general design principles determine how effectively the defined objectives are achieved. These include the mix of research methods to be used, the ‘raw materials’ to be used, how access to the materials will be gained, and “the need to keep research projects within manageable limits” (Allan, 1991, p.168). Moreover, a feasibility study could be conducted to determine “whether a project is feasible in principle… [and] also whether it is feasible within the constraints of time and resources available…” (ibid, p.170). The methodology must therefore take into account the purpose of the study, accessibility of the site or subjects, the available resources or equipments, and the time, cost, locational, skill and other constraints. Time management particularly is an important part of the planning process. Either a quantitative and qualitative method may be used or a mixed method. Both have their strengths and weaknesses but a mixed method may be used to benefit from both types of research. “Qualitative research is much more diverse… in its ways of thinking, in its methods and in its data,” (Punch, 2006, p.4) but can often enrich the information obtained from quantitative research to provide deeper understanding, which is useful for academically rigorous research. Increasingly in Human Geography, “a multiplicity of conceptual approaches and methods of enquiry” (Hay, 2001, p.2) are being used because qualitative research methods tend to be more elucidating in studying “human environments, individual experiences and social processes” (ibid). In designing a primary research study involving a questionnaire, observations and interviews for example, the survey must be carefully devised and conducted so that the required information is obtained in a complete and efficient manner. A pilot study can be useful as when using large-scale structured questionnaires, as it “gives certainty to what were previously estimates and allows the main study to go ahead” (Allan, 1991, p.243). The sampling strategy is also clearly defined. Samples are carefully selected and sufficiently large so as to be as representative of the population under study as possible though availability and practical constraints may impose restrictions. The purpose of the research must of course be kept in mind as far as the actual type and quantity of data handled is concerned. Data collection is necessarily meticulous in rigorous research and reliability is an important concern. This has the aim of increasing the likelihood that the research will be able to extract the information desired. The presentation and analysis of results must be equally detailed. Indeed, rigorous academic research tends to be highly detailed and very revealing, especially in case or longitudinal studies. But it is good practice in the end to mention possible sources of error or other limitations of the study. And, research findings and conclusions should be well supported by the research evidence. Other important issues in research design are safety and ethics. This former is especially so with research in physical geography because if can involve fieldwork in unfamiliar, remote or hazardous places. Basic precautions include travelling in groups rather than alone even if the research is a solo activity, checking weather forecasts beforehand and wearing appropriate clothing, and informing someone of the route and schedule and keeping in contact with them. Typical items to take are ample foodstuffs, medication, first aid kit, area map, compass torch, and mobile phone. There may also be legal and cultural considerations besides logistical. Ethics concerns declaring any conflicts of interest, relating information about the research and any associated risks to the subjects, seeking their informed consent for research purposes, and ensuring their confidentiality and anonymity. In short, if serious research is to be conducted, serious planning and precautions must be evident too. References Allan G. and Skinner C. (Ed.s) (1991) Handbook for Research Students in the Social Sciences. Routledge. Clifford, N. J. and Valentine, G. (Eds) (2003) Key Methods in Geography. Sage: London. Course notes. Research Methods and Data Sources: Identification and Evaluation. Advanced Study Skills (GEO2044). University. Flowerdew, R. and Martin, D. (Eds) (2005) Methods in Human Geography. Pearson: Harlow. Hakim C. (2000) Research Design: Successful Designs for Social and Economic Research. London: Routledge. Hart, C. (2001) Doing a literature search: a comprehensive guide for the social sciences. London: Sage. Hay, Iain. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods in Human Geography. OUP. Johnston, Ron. (2006). Sixty Years of Change in Human Geography. Paper prepared for the History of Postwar Social Science Seminars, LSE. http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/CPNSS/events/Abstracts/HIstoryofPoswarScience/lse.pdf [Accessed 6 August 2009]. Kitchin, R. and Tate, N. J. (2001) Conducting Research into Human Geography. 1st Edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Kneale, Pauline. (2003). Study Skills for Geography Students: A Practical Guide. 2nd Edition. Arnold Publication. Arnold Parsons T. and Knight P. (2005) How to do your Dissertation in Geography and Related Disciplines. 2nd Edition. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Punch, K. (2006) Developing Effective Research Proposals. Second Edition. Sage: London. Peet R. (1998) Modern Geographical Thought. Blackwell: Oxford Rhoads, B.L. & Thorn, C.E. (Eds.) (1996) The scientific nature of geomorphology. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Rogers, A. and Viles, H. (2003) The Students Companion to Geography. Blackwell: Oxford Read More