Serotonin - Research Paper Example

?Serotonin Human beings have a deficiency or defect concerning a neurotransmitter called serotonin. Serotonin is an important messenger molecule in the brain that affects aggression, appetite, impulse control, mood, pain, sleep, and social life. The differences in the use of serotonin by brain neurons have been linked to the several ranges of neuropsychiatric disorders. Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT belongs to the class off G protein coupled 5-HT receptors that are responsible for the transmission of exbtracellular 5-HT signals to the brain (Chattopadhyay, 2007). Manufacture of Serotonin The human brain is where serotonin is manufactured. Essential amino acid known as tryptophan contained in foods such as bananas, pineapples and milk are used in the production of serotonin. A hydroxyl group is added to the tryptophan’s benzene through the action of the enzyme known as tryptophan hydroxylase. The hydroxyl group is added at position five, leading to the production of 5-hydroxytryptophan. Further, amino acid known as decarboxylase is then charged with the process of eliminating a carboxyl group from 5-hydroxytryptophan, after the removal of a carboxyl group, serotonin is formed (5-hydroxytryptamine) (Vanhoute, 1993). Large amounts of serotonin in the hyuman body are located in the enterochromaffin cells which are located in the alimentary canal. In this region of the body, serotonin is used to regulate the activities of the intestine. The rest of the serotonin is manufactured in the serotonergic neurons which are located in the central nervous system. Serotonin which is produced from the enterochromaffin cells is stored in the blood platelets. In the blood clotting process, platelets are able to release the serotonin. In this case, serotonin helps to regulate homeostasis and the process of blood clotting. Further, serotonin helps inn the growth process of the cells thereby becoming an important factor in the wound healing process (Huether, 1999). The metabolism of serotonin takes place in the live. The product of metabolism is known as 5-HIAA. In the process of metabolism, serotonin is oxidized by monoamine oxidase to produce aldehyde. Aldehyde is further oxidized into 5-HIAA by aldehyde dehydrogenase. Large amounts of serotonin in the blood leads to certain forms of carcinoid syndrome of flushing. It also leads to diarrhea, and heart complications. Human beings who experience the production of large amounts of serotonin often suffer from tricuspid valve disease. This disease is caused due to proliferation of myocytes into the valve (Chattopadhyay, 2007). Serotonin is not only found in animals. There are plants and fungi that have serotonin. Worms and insects also have serotonin. This is manifested the pain caused due to their bites. Plant spines also cause pain to human beings. Other pathogenic amoebas have the ability to produce serotonin, the effect of the serotonin from amoeba leads to diarrhea (Chattopadhyay, 2007). 5-HT receptors belong to the A rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptors are said to have seven transmembrane spanning helices which include; three intracellular and three extracellular loops, one extracellular amino-terminus, and an intracellular carboxy-terminus. The transmembrane helices are charged with the function of binding endogenous ligand serotonin (Chattopadhyay, 2007). Serotonergic neurons are lovated at the dorsal and median raphe nuclei region of the brain stem. In addition, serotonergic neurons are responsible for the projection of nerve terminals to every region of the brain. There are primary targets for serotonergic projections in the brain. The main targets include the substantia nigra, hypothalamus, amygdaloid-hippocampal region, caudate, plutamen and nucleus accumbens. Other areas that are targeted by the serotonergic projections include cerebral cortial areas such as the frontal, occipital, insular, parietal, temporal, and cerebral cortices (Vanhoute, 1993). In the brain, the cerebral cortex region has several nerves of serotonin than any other region. These serotonergic nerves in the cerebral cortex exert important influence in the activities of the entire cerebral cortex. Other areas that are assisted by the numerous networks of serotonin nerves include diencephalon, basal ganglia, brainstem, cerebellum and the spinal cord. Serotonin helps in the regulation of several brain functions. Deficiency in the levels of serotonin has been linked to a number of different neuropsychiatric diseases (Vanhoute, 1993). Mechanisms involved in the regulation of 5-HT The release of 5-HT is governed by the firing frequency of the raphe-neurons. Nthe raphe fneurons are responsible for the pacemaker cycle where the Ca++- dependent potassium current is the mnain element. The rate at which these neurons are produced is regulated by somatodendritic autoreceptors present in the 5-HT. further, the discharge of the neurons are modulated by heterosynaptic inpits such as those originating from noradrenergic, gabaergic, cholinergic, glutamatergic and other inputs. In the wake period, the firing activity of 5-HT neurons is said to be very stable. However, the firing activity is capable of slowing down during slow wave sleep. The firing activity can stop completely during REM sleep. It is crucial to note that the release patterns of the neurons are not affected by environmental stimulation or other types of stressors (Huether, 1999). Serotonin is released from free ending 5-HT axon terminals. In addition, serotonin is also released from typical presynapses in the distant projection fields of the 5-HT neurons. Terminal autoreceptors are gresponsible for the control of the impulse driven 5-HT release. The adjustment of 5-HT is done by different types of heterosynaptic inputs. High levels of serotonin release which do not alter the firing rate of the raphe neurons may stimulate 5-HT release in distant projection fields independently of the raphe driven impulse flow (Huether, 1999). The amino acid know as tryptophan is responsible for the manufacture of 5-HT (serotonin). The transmission of nerve impulses in the brain and to the rest of the body is only possible through the presence of serotonin. Some of the neurotransmitters in the brain that are important include dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters help in the carrying of impulses across nerve cells. Serotonin, which is one of the neurotransmitters, is processed by amino acid known as tryptophan. Tryptophan ensures that volume of serotonin manufactured by the brain is in the required level (Chattopadhyay, 2007). Happy feeling in human beings is linked to the presence of serotonin in required amounts. Further, serotonin is also responsible for the maintenance of happy mood in human beings. Problems of insomnia, anxiety and depression can be solved through the synthesis of serotonin in the central nervous system. Low levels of serotonin leads to depression. Depressed individuals often show signs of anxiety and feelings of worthlessness. In addition, depressed individuals cannot engage in daily activities due to fear, insomnia and fatigue. Several drugs have been manufactured to reduce the levels of depression in human beings. Most of these drugs aim at improving the amount of serotonin and other neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. For instance, several antidepressants have been manufactured because they are believed to be having great impact on chemical messengers within the brain. Antidepressant medications are responsible for the regulation in the production of serotonin. In addiction, antidepressants regulate the action of serotonin (Chattopadhyay, 2007). low levels of serotonin also leads to depression, for instance, when there is low concentration of serotonin in the cerebrospinal fluid, human beings bare capable of developing depression signs such as anxiety, feeling of worthlessness, lack of sleep and fatigue. The fact that low levels of serotonin metabolites in the spinal fluid has led to the production of several antidepressants in order to increase the concentration levels. Antidepressants are aimed at blocking the reuptake of serotonin back into the presynaptic cell. Despite the numerous side effects, antidepressants continue to be prescribed by doctors in treating depression (Chattopadhyay, 2007). In instances whereby depression is not that serious to demand medical attention, individuals are advised to increase the levels of serotonin in the brain through vigorous exercise. Serotonin levels can be increased through increased activity. Exercise is the safest way in which individuals are capable of increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain (Chattopadhyay, 2007). The Influence of Diet in The Production Of Serotonin The foods human beings eat have an influence in the production of serotonin in the brain. The production of neurotransmitters and the way in which the brain functions depends on the type of food eaten. Foods containing essential amino acids have been found to be necessary in the production of serotonin. Such foods include bananas, milk and turkey among others. Poor eating habits lead to depression because they inhibit the production of serotonin. Losw levels of serotonin leads to depression. In addition, serotonin is known to be triggering hunger signals in the brain (Vanhoute, 1993). The body looks more relaxed due to the production of serotonin (Vanhoute, 1993). Other neutransmitters such as dopamine or neropinephrine help the human beings to think and act quickly when they are being produced in the brain. The relaxation of the body is achieved when human beings eat foods that are rich in carbohydrates. Proteins are also said to be contributing to alertness in human beings. The levels of tryptophan in the brain are increased through the consumption of complex carbohydrates thereby leading to a calming effect (Baumel, 1999). Consequently, the production of dopamine and norepinephrine is promoted through the consumption of food rich in protein. Increased alertness in human beings is achieved through the consumption of essential fatty acids and carbohydrates. Some of the recommended protein foods include Salmon and white fish. Foods high in saturated fats should not be consumed because they lead to slow thinking. Fats affect the production of neurotransmitters because they make the blood cells become sticky thereby hindering the flow of blood to the brain and to other body organs (Baumel, 1999). Diet rich in vitamin C is necessary in the production of serotonin. Vitamin C helps in the conversion of amino acids into noradrenalin. The amino acids that are converted into noradrenalin include L-tyrosine and L-phenylalanine. Adequate amounts of vitamin C in the diet are also necessary in the production of tryptophan into serotonin. Serotonin is responsible for the in ensuring that human beings have enough sleep. It also ensures that pain is controlled (Baumel, 1999). Conclusion Serotonin is important in ensuring that the body functions normally. Serotonin helps human beings feel happy. Low levels of serotonin have led to the production of antidepressants aimed at increasing the levels of serotonin in the blood. However, it should be noted that high levels of serotonin have negative effects to the body. Further, depressants have also proved to be ineffective in the control of depression that is linked to low levels of serotonin. The maintenance of the right amount of serotonin in the blood can only be realized in the consumption of foods that have carbohydrates, proteins and vitamin C. in addition; human beings are advised to engage actively in exercise since it helps in the synthesis and maintenance of serotonin levels in the central nervous system and in the gut. Works Cited Baumel, S. Serotonin; McGraw-Hill Professional: New York. 1999. Print. Chattopadhyay, A. Serotonin Receptors in Neurobiology; CRC Press: New York, 2007. Print. Huether, G. Tryptophan, Serotonin, and Melatonin: Basic Aspects and Applications, volume 467; Springer: New York, 1999. Print. Vanhoute, P. Serotonin: from cell biology to pharmacology and therapeutics; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Amsterdam, 1993. Print. Read More