The Scientific Study of Animal - Research Paper Example

? The Graham Investor Animal Behavior Research The scientific study of animal behavior focuses on the mechanisms underlying the interaction of animals with each other, other living beings as well as the environment they live in. It specifically explores how animals can relate to other organisms and includes various topics such as reproduction, survival instincts and development. Research in animal behavior gathers methodologies and questions of analysis in diverse subjects, establishing boundaries in psychology, physiology, evolutionary biology and ecology. Scientists trained in this field are able to integrate various types of information which provides experience in analysing and modelling various biological phenomena at the systems level. Further studies have managed to investigate the behavioral disorders that may arise in animals and discover the undermining causes. This paper focuses on the history of animal behavior and analyzes the anxiety disorders present in dogs as well as the theurapeutic methods proposed for each form of the disease. History The study of animal behavior was extremely common in the prehistoric era, with primitive humans managing to hunt down animals for food by observing their behavior and interaction with the environment, exploiting the difference between solitary animals and animals living in herds. This is clearly seen by carvings in the walls depicting the hunting of wild animals. Greek philosophers also considered the animal behavior to be unique and embodied the concept of eidos (type) which represents a perfect behavior for every kind of species. This type of thinking, known as typological, ignores the differences between each species as unimportant and states species-typical behaviors as the norm in animal behavior (Sinervo). Until the time of Darwin in the 19th century, the study of behavior was strongly based on the typological thinking and religious views ignoring the changes that take over by evolution. Charles Darwin, one of the most prominent scientists of all time, sparked a revolution in the biology era by proposing the Theory of Evolution by Natural selection. This dictated that organisms naturally vary in every attribute and that leads to differences in survival or reproduction. The theory of producing successful descendents is based on the fact that the differences are heritable, which gives the ability to create new species by inheriting only the successful traits from the ancestors. This selection is said to be “blind” and governed only by luck, therefore having only a probabilistic outcome. Darwin’s ideas were later challenged by philosophical and theological theories of evolution, which led to the development of novel theories that implemented all the aspects that had been proposed. The most distinctive theory about animal behavior was constructed by two Nobelists, Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz which paved the way for the modern ethology study on combining instinctive behaviors and external stimuli alterations. Anxiety disorders One of the most common disorders in dog’s behavior and a condition that resembles much similarity to humans, as an approximate 88% of treated patients at the Service of Clinical Ethology of the Veterinary Faculty of Madrid presented anxiety-related disorders. These imbalances can be seen a result of chronic or post-traumatic stress, but also genetic factors and experiences can predispose towards anxiety. They have the ability to cause psychological conflict, limiting the individual to co-exist in its environment and making it not able to function socially (Overall, 1997). While several definitions have been proposed for anxiety, it’s widely accepted that there is a large spectrum of behaviour disorders linked to anxiety. Stress has been connected to some forms of anxiety but it was also proposed that the notion of anxiety as an internal response to dangerous or unpredictable stimuli (Sherman & Mills, 2008). The most frequent conditions related to anxiety can be categorised as: generalized anxiety, separation anxiety, and aggressiveness. Generalized anxiety A constant reactivity, exploration and alertness combined with great motor activity is the general description of this type of anxiety. This constant anxiety changes the individual’s behaviour and disrupts normal social interactions. It’s generally manifested as a persistent and infinite disorder with no obvious or predominant stimuli by the individual’s environment (Overall, 1997). Symptoms are generally associated with trembling, restlessness, frequent blinking and hyperactivity due to the increased striated muscular tone. Mood swings can also change rapidly from extreme excitement to inhibition while the hyperactivity can be manifested physically by the presence of nausea, dizziness, diarrhoea and difficulty in breathing. Separation anxiety This occurs when dogs are separated from its owners or left on its own at home, something particularly common on dogs that have not been detached correctly during their puberty, when normally the bond between child and mother is interrupted (Sherman & Mills, 2008). When this happens, the dog falls in an ill-state of whining and lack of appetite until it forms a new attachment with the owner, which may lead to dependence, a prime indication of separation anxiety. Additionally, a lack of physical and social interaction with other dogs can also cause frustration which can build up to separation anxiety. Dogs that display this disorder are characterized as very “clingy”, with a tendency to pursue continuous physical contact with the owner and the main symptoms are manifested around 30 to 60 minutes after the owner leaves. These include excessive whining and howling, destructive behavior towards objects handled by the owner, restlessness, inappropriate urination and attempts to escape. When the owner returns, excessive enthusiasm is displayed by the dog (Dantzer & Mormede, 1985). Aggressiveness One of the most frequent behavioural disorders present in dogs, which can easily possess a danger for society. In United States approximately 2 million people are bitten every year and have caused yearly casualties of 10-16 people (Haug, 2008). However, due to the fact that some dog owners encourage aggressiveness and consider them as heroes in the case they defend them from attacks by thieves or threats by other people. Aggressiveness is a reactive state characterized by a higher chance of enhancing aggression. The subject reacts in a much heavier frequency than others producing aggressions that range from subtle gestures and facial expressions to brutal attacks (Landsberg et al., 2008). Aggressiveness can be caused by various factors such as interaction with the environment, medical problems or interactions with other people or animals. Aggressiveness is separated to four sub-categories: A) Dominance: The aggression is directed to its owner. B) Intraspecific: Dogs attack individuals from the same species. C) Territorial: When the dog attacks people or animals that posses a “threat” to their family or property perceived by the pet. D) Fear: The aggressive response to a situation that intimidates the dog and is not avoidable Therapeutic management of anxiety The therapeutic measures followed in order to minimize anxiety can differ greatly not only due to the type of manifestation in the individual but also on the degree of intensity and possibility of brain neurochemistry alterations. General practices involve relaxation techniques followed by psychopharmacology treatments and finally behavior modification to maintain the therapeutic effects in the long-haul. Relaxation Enabling a relaxed response model from the dog is imperative in accepting treatment. Daily sessions that include relaxing massages in a tranquil environment can help the animal reach a relaxed state until it almost falls asleep. As the sessions progress, moving away from the dog and returning will help the dog reach a relaxed state on its own. Psychopharmacology treatment Neurochemical imbalances correspond to the majority of the conditions related to anxiety and psychotropic drugs are used in controlled dosages and frequent intervals to control any imbalances and facilitate hormonal homeostasis. These chemicals can alter the animal’s response capacity to external stimuli, therefore reducing the levels of anxiety. This in turn stops the vicious circle of anxiety blocking learning mechanisms and increasing the susceptibility to anxiety by minimizing efficient response. Common drugs used are benzodiazepines, serotonin reuptake selective inhibitors (SIRS) and fluoxetine (Crowell-Davis & Murray, 2008a; 2008b). All these possess anxyolitic properties enabling control over a dog’s anxiety and can be used in conjunction to reduce both frequency and severity of the symptoms. Behavior modification techniques The main techniques used in veterinary are habituation, systematic desensitization and counter-conditioning. The habituation/desensitization method is used to increase the capacity threshold of the response elicited during a specific situation or stimulus. By identifying the involved stimuli and its presentation to the animal when in relaxed state in an increasing manner can help counteract its effects and minimize it. This technique is generally used to combat aggressiveness against other dogs or humans by teaching obedience and incorporating positive feelings towards other individuals. Counterconditioning is typically used in order to disrupt the unwanted behaviour by teaching and incorporating another behaviour which interferes with the execution of the former unwanted behaviour. Such as in the case of separation anxiety, teaching a dog to obey commands and not becoming overly attached with the owner deletes the previous “clingy” behavior expressed when the owner left the house. Conclusion Animal behavior research has evolved a long way form the previous hypotheses. New behavioral models and patterns are discovered every day enabling scientists to further understand the psychology of animals, which is extremely helpful in preserving the ecosystem and maintaining an environmental balance. Due to the similarities between the psychology of animals and humans, studies conducted in animals could potentially unlock the mechanisms underlying the human mind, which are far more complex in nature. Stainbrook (1947) had already proposed the idea in the past and now many scientists are employing testing on animals for validating psychological hypotheses. References Crowell-Davis, S., & Murray, T. (2008a). Amino Acid Neurotransmitters: Glutamate, GABA, and the Pharmacology of Benzodiazepines Veterinary Psychopharmacology (pp. 25- 33). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Crowell-Davis, S., & Murray, T. (2008b). Biogenic Amine Neurotransmitters: Serotonin Veterinary Psychopharmacology (pp. 72-79). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Dantzer, R., & Mormede, P. (1985). Stress in domestic animals: a psychoneuroendocrine approach. Paper presented at the Animal stress, University of California, Ca.(USA), Jul 1983. Haug, L. I. (2008). Canine Aggression Toward Unfamiliar People and Dogs. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 38(5), 1023-1041. Landsberg, G. M., Melese, P., Sherman, B. L., Neilson, J. C., Zimmerman, A., & Clarke, T. P. (2008). Effectiveness of fluoxetine chewable tablets in the treatment of canine separation anxiety. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 3(1), 12-19. Overall, K. L. (1997). Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. St. Louis, Missouri: CV Mosby. Sherman, B. L., & Mills, D. S. (2008). Canine Anxieties and Phobias: An Update on Separation Anxiety and Noise Aversions. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 38(5), 1081-1106. Sinervo, B. History and Philosophy of Behavioral Analysis. Retrieved 4 December, 2012, from http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/HISTORY.HTM#_Toc400814876 Stainbrook, E. (1947). The experimental induction of acute animal behavior disorders as a method in psychosomatic research. Psychosomatic medicine, 9(4), 256-259. Read More