The Underlying Theory of Fingerprinting - Essay Example

CHAPTER III FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS In the last three chapters, it has been presented that the concept and practice of fingerprinting has a long-standing history and tradition. The whole concept and practice has started back from the Egyptians and is, likewise, traceable among the ancient Chinese and Indians as well (Specter, 2002; Cole, 2001). The purpose is primarily to enable identification of persons. Although, it has been noted that the demand for finger printing identification in the past is not high due to limited mobility of persons, what is important, is the fact that fingerprinting is a recognised application that maybe utilised in identifying an individual, especially now that the situation is different (Cole 2001). Since due to globalisation, the high rate of mobility of people necessitates ways safeguarding the borderless world (Soros, 2002; Suarez- Orozco &Qin- Hillard, 2004; UNFPA, 2006). In light of this, Chapter IV presents the findings and discussions of the findings of the research. 4.1. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The underlying theory regarding the practise of fingerprinting is the concept that no two people in the world possessed identical sets of fingerprints (Zhang, 2001; Epstein, 2002; Specter, 2002; Kumar & Shama, 2009; Cole, 2001, 2005; Leibhan, 2003). This particular theory is the guiding principle with which developments pertinent to fingerprinting has been pursued. In this regard, the following are the findings of the research. First, the concept of fingerprinting as a mechanism for purposes of identification has been known since the ancient period (Specter, 2002; Cole 2001). However, the current trend of utilising fingerprinting for purposes of identifying, investigating and solving crimes is a current advancement in the field, which is brought about by developments in science and technology together with the condition of increased mobility of people (Sombat, 2006; Cole, 2005; Epstein, 2002). This conceptual finding is significant because it highlights the fact that first, fingerprinting is a recognised tool that a can be used for identification regardless of genre or period in history. Second, from the historical rooting of fingerprinting one can impugned that fingerprinting has been adopted as early as nineteenth century for criminal investigation. Finally, third, the contemporary concept of fingerprinting is a result of the coming together of science, technology, judiciary, increased mobility of people brought about by globalisation and demands in the contemporary society. Fig 1 CONTEMPORARY FINGERPRINTING This figure shows that the current understanding of fingerprinting is a result of the coming together of several factors that can be rooted from the historical tradition that has been traced in this research. However, what it also made manifest is the fact that certain conditions have paved the way for the change in the use and perception of what fingerprinting is and that this conditions have set the standard with which contemporary fingerprinting is to be approached and understood. The second important conceptual finding of this research is the nature of fingerprinting per se is the foundation of the theory and principle that no two persons share the same fingerprints. In the literature review, it has been shown that fingerprints have several important details that enable experts to identify sets of fingerprints as ascertaining or belonging to a particular individual. The details of the fingerprints that are look into include the loops, arches, whorl, minutiae, and the finest details, which are comprised of ridge path deviation, ridge width, ridge edge contour and pores (Zhang, 2000; Shantalia et al, 2008; Allesandrini et al,2003; Ribaríc et al, 2003). Moreover, it is claimed that the analysis performed on the finest detail of the fingerprint, which is level 3, is considered as highly accurate and has helped forensic investigation in identifying prints taken from crime scenes (Toom, 2006). Looking from this perspective, one encounters the question what is it in fingerprinting or fingerprints per se that enables it to identify the person among other human persons, and the answer is in the uniqueness and permanency that is inherent in the physiological attributes of fingerprints. Fingerprints are formed in a random process during the four to six weeks of gestation (Sombat, 2006). The random process with which the fingerprints are made is the reason why “fingerprints differ from finger to finger on every individual. They also differ between individuals, including identical twins” (Sombat, 2006:2826). This attribute of fingerprints is known as the “uniqueness” factor of the prints. Permanency factor, on the other hand, is attributed to the fact that although it is contained in the epidermis which is the outer layer of the skin, it is in fact generated from and imprinted in the dermis which is the thick tissue underlying the epidermis. Thus, it can only be destroyed if the dermis is damaged (Sombat, 2006). Furthermore, fingerprints are permanent because they remained unchanged from infancy till death “while they may expand or contract dependent on the weight of the person, but (sic) the pattern is static” (Sombat, 2006:2826). These two factors, uniqueness and permanency, which are inherent in fingerprints technically qualifies it as one of the major physiological markers that may distinguish one person over another. Third, combining the first and second finding of this research brings us to the third finding of the study, which is the extrinsic and intrinsic value of fingerprints. Fig 2 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC VALUE OF FINGERPRINTS These two important values of fingerprinting draw attention to fact why fingerprinting has gained major success as primary biometric identifiers over other biometric identifiers, security, and identity systems – it is inherently unique and permanent and it is a valuable tool that is used for identification purposes. Furthermore, these values become more essential when combined with the benefits that are derived from biometric identifiers. These benefits include being user convenient since one can withdraw money from ATM without card or pin. Biometric identifiers offer more security in terms of it being more difficult to forge or access. Finally, it proffers higher efficiency as there is limited necessity for maintenance and updating (Jain et al, 2005). Thus, fingerprinting as a biometric identifier opens the reality wherein personal identification becomes more secured and is not easily forged, shared or misplaced (Jain et al, 2005; Ratha et al, 2001; Matsumoto et al, 2002). This conceptual clarification provides a clearer view why fingerprinting has almost become synonymous with biometric identification. The popularity of fingerprinting for purposes of identification is not unfounded but is in fact based on solid evidences provided by history, its intrinsic physiological attributes, namely, uniqueness and permanency and lastly its extrinsic value, which is lodged on the notion that it is an effective tool that can be used for identifying persons and for criminal investigations. Moreover, fingerprinting becomes more significant the moment that it is compared with traditional methods of identification like pin numbers, signature and the likes since fingerprinting cannot be forged, shared or stolen. However, a theoretical understanding will not suffice for a better understanding of the impact of fingerprinting in Saudi Arabia. As such, the real life underpinnings of this conceptual analysis are supported by the qualitative data that has been collected for this research. In this regard, the combination theory and real life experience of people who have been handling regarding fingerprints offers a more holistic picture of fingerprinting technology. Fourth finding of this research is that advantages accrue with the use of automatic fingerprint information system (AFIS). In the literature review, it has been shown that scholars are in agreement regarding the advantages of AFIS (see Leibhan, 2003; Jain et al, 2002; Toom, 2006). It is maintained that in the advancement of technology, not only is the gathering and acquisition of data easier and more accessible but that since the cost of the technology has lowered, it becomes accessible to more people, thus more people are familiar with it or are informed about what is biometrics fingerprinting (Leibhan, 2003). In fact, “The fingerprint sensors are becoming smaller and cheaper, automatic identification based on fingerprints is becoming an attractive alternative/complement to the traditional methods of identification” (Khuwaja & Abu-Rezq, 2003: 66). Moreover, AFIS is also easy to use, and easy to install. Current fingerprints scanners are small, portable, and even handheld and plug and play technologies. Likewise, training in the use of the machine is no longer complicated as such limiting the presence of experts, thus lowering costs in maintenance (Jamieson et al, 2005). Of course, together with these advantages are the uniqueness, permanency and security that fingerprinting technology affords. In lieu with this, the police officers and soldiers that have been interviewed agree with the scholars regarding the advantages of using AFIS. Fig 3. Graph of Q 1 Police officer 1 says, “In automatic systems, works are completed in real-time where number of criminal status records (fingerprints) became threefold of criminal status records in manual days. The manual process takes longer and boring time in terms of printing, saving, comparison and marching.” While Soldier 1 shares, “These automatic systems assisted in taking important decisions quickly where time plays an important role in taking such decisions. For example, when somebody comes to visit the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; employee enters his fingerprints particulars and then all-important particulars are displayed whether he is restricted from access to the country, securely wanted or expatriated previously but now he is using another passport. Currently, 24 hours operating department is opened in order to settle problems facing airports in terms of suspicion or if image is unclear and airports receive response immediately. TABLE 1 LIST OF ADVANTAGES OF AFIS POLICE OFFICERS SOLDIERS ACCURACY STORAGE OF DATA HIGHER EFFECIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS PRINTING OF COPIES IS EASIER ASSISTS IN DECISION MAKING HELPS IN MONITORING PERSONNEL EASY TO USE SAVES TIME EASE IN ACQUIRING FINGERPRINTS EASE IN TRANSFERRING DATA FROM ONE REGION TO ANOTHER The table shows that both the police officers and soldiers agree on the numerous advantages of AFIS. However, notable with their answers is the idea that aside from their technical knowledge of AFIS, they have likewise raised practical and managerial benefits that can be gained from its use e.g. helps in monitoring personnel. Furthermore, as they discuss teh advantages of AFIS, they have also note that there are certain disadvantages with AFIS. Again, in the conducted interview, it has been observed that there is a commonality regarding the negative perception or disadvantages of AFIS among the police officers and the soldiers. The disadvantages are the following: The continuous need for updating software and operating systems as well as need for maintenance which impose a financial burden on administration (Financial Contracts) after expiry of warranty period, Continuous need for training on basics that shall be maintained by decision-makers, Work stoppage due to system downtime, It plays a significant role in unemployment or change in work status, The system is vulnerable to interpenetration so they require good protection using protection software that is considered costly in some conditions in terms of saving and upgrading, Some concerns are encountered when dealing with elders and artisans, Fewer devices with large work volume. Going over the disadvantages or negative facets of AFIS, it has been observed that the disadvantages raised do not question the system per se or the validity and reliability of the system itself. Rather, what are being raised, as disadvantages are concerns pertaining to the technology, knowledge/lack of knowledge of the technology, the costs of maintaining the system, fewer devices and unemployment. In this regard, it can be deduced that automated information system is perceived as more efficient compared with the manual technique even if there are observable limitations and concerns with AFIS. Furthermore, learning that there is congruence between the theoretical and practical application of automated fingerprint information system in terms of advantages as per enunciated by some members of the police and military institution of KSA. The second important query that ought to be addressed is its impact (if any) in the judicial and criminal system of KSA. The fifth finding of the research is that the use of automated fingerprinting has yielded a positive effect in the delivery and attainment of justice in KSA. In fact, there is a unanimous agreement among the police officers and soldiers interviewed pertinent to the positive effect or consequence derived from the implementation of AFIS in KSA. As Police Officer 4 shares, “No doubt that automatic systems have significantly assisted in increasing efficiency in achieving justice in terms of speed in achieving this justice, connect fingerprints in various locations as well as speed of results thereof significantly reduced time required by security authorities to investigate precedents or matches in previous cases for innocent individuals who have no relation to such cases.” While Soldier 1 states, “Through fingerprints, investigator may realize international criminals through publications of international organizations especially international drug traders, swindlers and imposters.” This shows that fingerprinting helps in not only determining local criminals, but also that through sharing of data the possibility of apprehending international criminals has turned into a reality. This positive impact is of great significance since it attests to the truism that in the era of globalization wherein the world seems to have become borderless, the international cooperation among the nations in terms of security becomes more perceptible and real. In addition, Soldier 4 says, “Efficiency in achieving justice and clearing the innocent .saving the traces taken from the crime scenes which are not recognized for comparing them with any suspected fingerprints in the future even after a longer period of time ,and the possibility of detecting the criminals even after many years….Fingerprints assist in detecting the identities of unknown corpses… judge shall take a more stressful decision on the contrary if it were the first time.” What Soldier 4 has shared is very significant especially in terms of legal system. He underscores the fact that fingerprinting is useful not only during the time that it is needed but that it enables future use as well. Being such, it offers hope for resolution of cold cases. At the same time, he implicitly acknowledges that judges in one way or another take fingerprints in consideration in legal judgement. Thus, the implementation of AFIS is significant even if there are certain entailed limitations in automated fingerprint information systems. The sixth finding of the research is that the system is susceptible to misuse and abuse. All the interviewees agree that the system is open to misuse and abuse. They have categorised into intentional misuse/abuse and unintentional misuse/abuse. The unintentional misuses/abuse may be attributed to lack of experience, while the intentional misuse is a result of financial or social gain. Soldier 3 says that the methods of abuse are through “Amend data as well as amend traces acquired from crime scene. Delete decimal cards from the database. Change form of fingerprint. Write the technical report and reply that there are no clear marks for matching based on collusion with charged individual. Burn criminal record cards in the archive department in order to cancel all information.” Police Officer 1 included “There is disclosure of nationals confidentiality.” In this regard, it can be impugned that both the police officers and the soldiers share the same opinion that system is open to misuse sand abuse via the manipulation of the data and that the personnel may intentionally or unintentionally changed the information. Fig 3 MISUSE AND ABUSE OF SYSTEM __________________________________ INTENTIONAL UNINTENTIONAL FINANCIAL GAIN LACKOF SOCIAL GAIN EXPERINCE WORK PRESSURE MISHANDLING OF HARDWARES Figure 3 presents the schema with which the interviewees approach the concern regarding abuse and misuse of the system. In their response, it has been observed that the interviewees do not look at the system as infallible. In fact, they attribute the unintentional misuse of the system both to the technology and to the human intervention. In addition, they recognise it as part of the scenarios that they face concerning the system. This perspective shows that in reality the system is open to the manipulation of information and data, which may affect the integrity not only of the system but also of the entire institution that uses biometric identifiers. Being such, they have come up with possible solutions to the problem. Table 2 PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM OF MISUSE/ABUSE POLICE OFFICERS’ RESPONSE SOLDIERS’ RESPONSE a- 1. Proper and accurate selection and verification of persons working on these systems. 1 Each individual shall have operating number in order to track his daily works by chiefs. 1- b- 2. Provide cutting-edge systems to resist any electronic attack against these systems 2. Increase spirit of devotion in work and appreciating technical work 3 Provide personnel with financial benefits and rewards for their efforts and excellence at work. 3. Provide financial incentives for good performance and for those who accomplish a given number of the decimal cards for motivating them to do their work as much as they can along with being keen to accuracy and avoiding making any mistakes c- 4. Educate personnel through seminars 4. Educate operators and provide instant and periodic specialized courses on using and operating these devices perfectly 5. Good training to acquire experience 5. The personnel awareness with the works importance , confidentiality and work ethics The responses of the interviewees show that although they recognised that there are some concerns regarding the automated fingerprint information system, they also have come up with approaches and programmes that can curtail if not totally eliminate these problems that taint the image and credibility of the governmental institutions or private institutions that utilise biometric identifiers system. Except for response 2 of the police officers, which is to ‘provide cutting-edge systems to resist any electronic attack against these systems’, all the proposed means of addressing the concern are geared towards developing among the personnel and staffs who handle the information necessary skills that will enable them to handle the data carefully, have proper attitude and work ethics and be given incentives that will prevent them from being financially lured. The seventh finding of this research is that all the interviewees are in agreement that the technology has not only enhanced and increased the efficiency in the delivery of justice and other services where identification is necessary. But it has also paved the way for decreased error in identification and increased remuneration for the personnel since the government has provided a 15% increase in their salary for their computer allowance. The following are the benefits and advantages gained out from the implementation of the technology: Enhance delivery of justice Increase productivity Accuracy in the results Speedy results Financial gain Increase knowledge in computer technology Base on their answers, it can be deduced that both the soldiers and the police officers acknowledge that the current state of technology in fingerprinting has resulted into positive impact in the performance of their functions and duties. These observations are also demonstrated in the literature review. As such, again, what is presented is that there is a seeming congruence between the theoretical discussions and the practical applications and experiences of the personnel who are using the technology. In the midst of the benefits and advantages that are derived from the utilisation of the biometric fingerprinting, all the police officers and the soldiers that have been interviewed unanimously agreed that as the current state of technology has made the work more efficient, effective and productive, of equal weight and importance is the role and function of the human personnel who are handling the job. Soldier 3 says, Integration should take place between human element and technology. Human should be highly trained and qualified properly on fingerprints and computer science. For technological element, devices should be state-of-the-art technology and proper for work nature. These devices should be provided with Arabic language since most personnel are not conversant with English, so there should be continuous training on fingerprints as well as handling fingerprints through computer. Therefore, we should not ignore the human element and depend completely on computer, but the final decision should be issued after inspecting and approving the technical report by expert. In the same manner, Police Officer 3 shares, Compatibility is one of the most important elements by availing good-trained human personnel together with cutting-edge equipments. Therefore, there should be state-of-the-art equipments and good-trained personnel, further, there should be sufficient number of personnel and each individual should have specified assignment in order to manifest innovation. Therefore, there should be sufficient experience in fingerprints science as well as in applying computer. Likewise, Soldier 2 states, No device can operate separately without interference from human element. There is an integrated matrix and consistency in performance. Device cannot operate without operator and results can be read by operator only. In order to achieve better performance level, the following shall be adopted: Intensify courses on computer and fingerprints. Programs shall comply with work needs and easy for handling by operators. Educate operators and increase their technical level in terms of preferring dealing with such systems and easy operation thereof. Provide bonus and rewards; reward hard workers in order to promote his morals and give him doses to increase his creativity in technical work. These findings and discussions point to the truism that biometric identifiers particularly fingerprinting has developed over the long period of time and now it has reached the stage wherein high levels of efficiency, accuracy, effectiveness and productivity are attained as a result of the implementation of the automated fingerprint information system. The experience of the personnel who are handling the technology and system as it is implemented in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia shows that there is an existing correspondence between the theories and the actual experience. Moreover, the reality with which the personnel work supplements the theoretical discussions regarding fingerprinting. As such, it is not surprising to find, that among its practitioners the notion that as they advocate better and more secure technological developments and programmes in order to maintain and protect the sanctity of the information and data that they are handling, they are also advocating approaches that will continuously educate, increase the knowledge and technical efficiency of the people who are working around the information. They see it as the appropriate response in order to achieve integration and compatibility between the human element and technological element in this particular field. In findings and discussions that have been presented in this chapter are the advantages and benefits that are derived from the implementation of fingerprinting technology in KSA. It has been shown that there is a unanimous agreement among the interviewees that the automated fingerprint information system has made the performance of their functions more efficient, effective, accurate, speedy and productive. And that compared with the manual technique, the automated method is better even if there are also recognized limitations and concerns with AFIS. CHAPTER IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In the last three chapters the literature review, research methodology, findings, and discussions have been presented. In this final chapter of the research, the summary, recommendations and conclusion will be given. Likewise, the limitations and possible future research of the study will be given. 4.1. SUMMARY Fingerprinting is the most popular among the biometric identifiers and this is based on a solid reasons and evidences. Fingerprinting has a long history. The concept and practice is known already even during the ancient period. However, what distinguish the contemporary application of fingerprinting are first, the developments in science and technology, which in turn, has greatly influenced and affected the development of fingerprinting technology. Second, the era of globalisation has opened and paved the way for increase mobility among people, thus increasing the necessity for border protection of which fingerprinting plays a significant role. Finally, the intergovernmental and even international cooperation that is transpiring as a result of the exchange and sharing of information has redefined not only the use and perception of people regarding fingerprinting but it has also reshaped the notion of biometrics identifiers in general and fingerprinting in particular. In the research, it has been presented that current trends in fingerprinting have moved from manual technique to automated fingerprint information system. This trend has created advantages which include higher efficiency, accuracy, effectiveness, increase productivity, speedy results, ease in transfer of data, easier storage, improve and easier way of acquiring finger prints, financial gain for the personnel in terms of an increase in salary, enhance and faster delivery of justice and it has allowed for a better and more secure way in protecting identity and verifying identification. However, despite these numerous benefits and advantages attributed to automated fingerprint information system. The system is not fool proof. Several disadvantages have been observed upon the implementation and use of AFIS. The negative characteristics of AFIS are; first, it is open to misuse and abuse through the manipulation of information. Second, work stoppage is observed during downtime. Third, personnel become dependent on the system. Fourth, unemployment or transfer to another department has been observed. Fifth, difficulty in getting prints from the elderly and artisans. Sixth, the need for a continuous updating programmes in order to protect the data and more often, this ‘software protection’ is very expensive. Seventh, the need for continuous training and education. And eight, lack of experience or knowledge results into unintentional misuse and abuse of the technology while at the same time intentional abuse of the system has been observed and the reasons behind the intentional abuse are financial and social gains. Nonetheless, despite the observable drawbacks in automated fingerprint information system, AFIS is preferred and considered as more efficient and effective compared with the manual technique. This claim is attested to by the interviewees themselves who, unanimously agreed, that AFIS, despite some limitations and concerns regarding its use is better than the manual technique. Several findings have resulted out from the research. Conceptual clarifications have been undertaken in order to spell out clearly the conceptual understanding of fingerprinting while at the same time learning and elucidating the experiences of the practitioners in the field. Moreover, the methodology employed in the research is a combination of literature review and qualitative research. This combination has been chosen because the secondary sources provided by the literature review is a wealth of information regarding the subject matter and that the semi-structured interview provided the narratives necessary in putting flesh to the theories learned from the scholarly articles. Furthermore, the use of qualitative research attest to the fact that there are many approaches to truth and knowledge and that qualitative research is one valid and legitimate approach to it (Golafshani, 2003). The findings include: Contemporary fingerprinting is a result of several factors and long standing history of the field. Fingerprinting innate attributes of uniqueness and permanency is the foundation of the theory that no two individual share the same fingerprint. Fingerprints have extrinsic and intrinsic values. Advantages accrue with the use of automatic fingerprint information system (AFIS). Use of automated fingerprinting has yielded a positive effect in the delivery and attainment of justice in KSA. The system is susceptible to misuse and abuse. But there are means with which these concerns can be tackled. The technology has not only enhanced and increased the efficiency in the delivery of justice and other services where identification is necessary. In the end, as identification, its security and verification, becomes necessary in the contemporary period, the need for the cooperation, compatibility and integration between man and technology becomes more pronounce and necessary. 4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS The following are the recommendations of the research. 1. Programs should be in Arabic as the application becomes more difficult if the language use is not easily understood by the user. 2. Personnel should be given incentives so that they will not be swayed in committing intentional abuse of the system. 3. More training and education should be provided in order to avert unintentional misuse/abuse of the system. 4. Technical updates and maintenance of the system should be regularly performed. 5. Implement mechanisms that allows for blind review of decisions or conclusions arrived at in order to further minimise errors in identification. 4.3. LIMITATIONS In the conduct of the research, the first observable limitation that has been encountered is the small number of participants. Since qualitative research is concerned with the phenomenon and on how it happened, the number of participants become less important as the persons and their narratives of experience becomes the source and the most important facet of the research (Seale, 1999; Attride- Sterling, 2001; Howe & Eisenhart, 1990). 4.4. POSSIBLE FUTURE RESEARCH As the current study has opened the understanding regarding the positive impact and consequences of implementing AFIS in KSA, the research paves for the research on the possible positive/negative consequences of fingerprinting technology in terms of its impact in culture and society. Moreover, as the development fingerprint technology is happening in a very fast phase are there sufficient laws that will protect the person not only in terms of securing and protecting his/her identity but also his/her bodily integrity as well in the light of DNA fingerprinting. Finally, this research opens a further study on the ethics and ethical standards in the acquisition of fingerprints. 4.5. CONCLUSION Biometric is the identification of the individual person using the physiological or behavioural traits of the individual. Contemporary society has adopted biometric identifiers and is moving away from the traditional forms of personal identification since biometric has a lesser chance of being stolen, shared or forged, thus, is more secure. Of the several biometric identifiers, fingerprinting is the most popular. In fact, fingerprinting is considered as synonymous with biometric. Fingerprinting is a very powerful tool for purposes of identification because of its inherent attribute of being unique and permanent in every individual. This inherent value of fingerprinting has laid down the principle that no two individuals share the same fingerprints. 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