Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Existential Psychology - Essay Example

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud is regarded as the founded of modern psychology. He developed the psychoanalytic theory. His psychoanalytic theory explains the meaning and dynamics of personality development, which informs the field of psychotherapy. This psychological perspective stresses how the unconscious mind determines human behavior. He radically transformed the field of psychology, introducing a theory of personality that stressed the existence and role of the unconscious mind. His actual experience with individuals suffering from mental disorders made him think that experiences during early childhood and unconscious instincts influenced the development of behavior and personality later in life. Freud thinks that the human mind is made up of three components—the id, the ego, and the superego. Through his actual experience with mentally ill individuals, Freud realized that unconscious needs and childhood experiences determine behavioral patterns. From these observations, Freud created a theory that portrayed development in the form of psychosexual stages. Freud’s theory explains that as children grow or mature, they move through psychosexual stages. At every stage, the pleasure-oriented drive of the libido is concentrated on a specific body part. The effective completion of every stage results in a stable, strong personality later in life. But if a conflict stays unsettled at any specific stage, the person may stay absorbed or trapped at that specific developmental stage (Mitchell & Black 49). An obsession may arise. For instance, an individual with an ‘oral obsession’ is thought to be trapped at the oral developmental stage. Indications of an oral obsession may involve too much dependence on oral activities like eating or smoking (Cavell 214). Freud believes that conflicts in every stage can have a permanent impact on behavior and personality (Guntrip 33). In his work entitled The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, he explained how the unconscious desires and thoughts are manifested, usually through dreams and ‘Freudian slips’ or slips of the tongue. Freud believes that psychological problems are the outcome of the unconscious conflicts becoming unstable or severe (Cavell 28). Freud’s psychoanalytic theory had a massive influence on twentieth-century knowledge, influencing the field of psychology and mental health. Although a large number of his ideas are criticized or treated with skepticism nowadays, his impact on or contribution to psychology is unquestionable. Psychoanalytic theory was very influential at the time and until now. Those influenced by the ideas of Freud tried to expand his theory and create their own. The theories of Erik Erikson, who is considered a neo-Freudian, have been possibly the most widely recognized. Erikson’s psychosocial development stages explain change and progress all over the lifespan, placing emphasis on conflicts and social relations that emerge during each stage of development (Guntrip 29). One of the Freudian psychoanalytic concepts that was very influential was the structure of personality—the id, the ego, and the superego. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the mind is composed of two major components—the unconscious and conscious. The unconscious part involves all those external to an individual’s awareness, such as memories, impulses, desires, and aspirations that reside outside the awareness but keep on affecting behavior. On the contrary, the conscious part involves those things that an individual is aware of (Mitchell & Black 48). Freud thinks that the mind is like an iceberg. The visible part of the iceberg, which is the tip, comprises only a small fraction of the mind, while the massive portion of submerged ice embodies the much bigger unconscious part. Besides these two key portions of the mind, Freud classifies human personality into three key parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the basic component of personality that is the root of the most primitive impulses. The id is totally unconscious and functions as the spring of libidinal energy (Mitchell & Black 25). The ego is the element of personality that deals with reality and makes sure that the id’s demands are addressed in a socially appropriate, harmless, and realistic way. The superego is the component of personality that contains the learned morals and norms (Mitchell & Black 25-26). The id is composed of all the hereditary aspects of personality, such as aggression and sexual drive. The id is the unconscious and spontaneous component of the human mind which reacts directly and instantly to the instincts. An infant’s personality is entirely made up of id and eventually it reaches the ego and the superego (Guntrip 170). The id requires instant gratification and when such occurs an individual feels pleasure, if not an individual feels pain or unpleasant. It functions within the ‘pleasure principle’ which is the assumption that all instincts must be gratified instantly, despite of the outcomes (Guntrip 32). On the other hand, the ego is “that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world” (Cavell 225). The purpose of the ego is to reconcile the impractical id and the actual reality. In an ideal world, the ego operates in a rational manner while the id is disordered and completely irrational. The ego works within the ‘reality principle’, dealing rationally with the demands of the id, usually delaying or ignoring gratification. But similar to the id, the ego rejects pain and accepts pleasure but not like the id the ego creates a practical technique to acquire pleasure (Mitchell & Black 122). Normally, the ego is feeble compared with the stubborn id. But the ego can establish itself and guide the id in the correct path. For the ego, something is ‘right’ only if it attains its goal of gaining pleasure without harming itself or the id. In contrast, the superego integrates social norms, principles, values, and moral standards which are learned from the family and significant others. It emerges during the phallic stage, usually at the age of 4. The purpose of the superego is to regulate the instincts of the id, particularly those which the social norms prohibit, like aggressive and sexual behaviors (Mitchell & Black 291). It also has the role of pushing the ego to become moral instead of only realistic and to pursue excellence. The superego is composed of two parts—the ‘ideal self’ and the ‘conscience’. The ‘ideal self’ is an invented image of how one should be, and involves career ambitions, how to deal with or socialize with other people, and how to act or behave as a societal member. On the other hand, the conscience can correct the ego by arousing feelings of remorse (Cavell 212). For instance, if the ego yields to the demands of the id, the superego could evoke a feeling of guilt in an individual. The conscience and ideal self are mostly shaped during childhood from parental training. The psychoanalytic theory of Freud explains that psychic energy is produced by the libido. Freud believes that an individual’s mental status is determined by two conflicting factors—cathexis and anti-cathexis (Guntrip 126). Cathexis is defined as a concentration of mental drive on an inanimate object, concept, or another individual. For instance, if an individual is starving s/he might form a mental picture of a tasty food. In other instances, the ego may restrain the drive of the id to look for ways that are associated with the task so as to scatter some of the id’s extra energy. If a person is not able to look for food to satisfy his/her craving, s/he might instead look at a menu or recipe (Guntrip 126-127). On the contrary, anti-cathexis refers to the ego barring the socially inappropriate demands of the id. Inhibiting impulses is a widespread kind of anti-cathexis, but it requires considerable effort or energy. As explained by Freud, there is a limited amount of libidinal energy (Guntrip 127). If much of this energy is invested in inhibiting impulses through anti-cathexis, a lower amount of energy goes to other processes. Furthermore, Freud believes that a large part of the human behavior is driven by the ‘life instincts’ and the ‘death instincts’. Life instincts refer to the need to survive, reproduce, and feel pleasure (Cavell 75). They consist of basic physiological needs (e.g. food, shelter) and emotional needs (e.g. love, sex). Freud also thinks that every human being has an unconscious yearning for death, which he calls the death instincts. He believes that risky behaviors are a manifestation of this instinct. Yet, Freud thinks that death instincts are mostly controlled by the life instincts (Cavell 75-76). Meanwhile, the concept of defense mechanism is one of the most widely known of Freud’s theory. When an individual seems reluctant to confront an ugly truth, s/he may be criticized for being ‘in denial’. When an individual makes an attempt to seek out a valid reason for inappropriate behavior, s/he may be criticized for ‘scapegoating’ (Cavell 75). These aspects characterize various forms of defense mechanisms, or methods that the ego exercises to defend itself from unease. Several of the common defense mechanisms are reversion, suppression, and denial. Although the theories of Freud have been severely criticized, it is essential to bear in mind that his psychoanalytic theory greatly contributed to the field of psychology. His ideas triggered important changes in how people perceive mental disorder by demonstrating that not all mental illnesses have physiological bases. His idea that mental disorders could be mitigated by really discussing them sped up the transformation of psychotherapy. In their literature review, Fisher and Greenberg (1977) argue that psychoanalytic theory should not be criticized or approved as a set, “it is a complete structure consisting of many parts, some of which should be accepted, others rejected and the others at least partially reshaped” (p. 211). Existential Psychology Existential psychology focuses on every individual’s connection to the most important challenges of life, referred to as life’s ‘big questions’. Moreover, existential psychology tries to understand life’s sentiment and spirit instead of situating life into a structure of organized and logical types. It also tries to incorporate key philosophical ideas into individuals’ psychological knowledge, while establishing the groundwork for existential therapy (Kaslow & Massey 305). Existential psychology is an area of research with assumptions and reflections about the world that could be confirmed or disproved in an empirical manner. It definitely developed from existential philosophy, which could be described as an individual’s core perception of life and the forces controlling human existence. Making this philosophy a basis, existential psychology is the totality of empirical facts, theories, and concepts that talks about how individuals deal with or relate to life’s major issues and how the important forces controlling human lives surface and are handled in everyday situations. The existential aspects of individuals begin with the fact that every person is both the known and the knower, “… the being who can be conscious of, and therefore responsible for, his existence” (May, Angel, & Ellenberger 41). Human emotions and thoughts constantly denote a physical matter hence human existence inescapably arises with respect to a world. Being is dynamic, and is constantly moving, following a certain path. Being is always looking ahead, while being influenced by the decisions a person makes in relation to his/her past and present circumstances. Therefore, being is most accurately understood in terms of temporality, and is not considered in existential psychology as a permanent or predetermined object or form that can be situated in spatial terms (May et al. 41). From the point of view of existentialism, the self, at a specific time, embodies a combination of a person’s ‘facticity’ and potentialities. Drawing upon the ideas of Sartre and Heidegger, existential psychology relates facticity not only to the world’s permanent features into which individuals are trapped, but also to the possibilities that are disregarded due to tendencies to choose a specific direction in life to the omission of other potentialities (Kaslow & Massey 305). Consequently, individuals become who they are as per their choices. The self develops vigorously by way of choices and actions as human beings progress in life. As argued by Gendlin (1978), “Past, present, and future are… not merely serial, as usually viewed, as if they were positioned in a line. Instead, each involves the others, and they make one structure together” (para 23). It is critically vital to thoroughly express, from the temporary ontology of Heidegger, the temporal nature of human existence. In so doing, this allows one to recognize the connection between understanding and mood. Heidegger explains Dasein’s (being there) three temporal ‘ecstasies’ as the past (mode of having been), present (waiting-toward), and future (coming-toward) (Gendlin para 24-28). Dasein recognizes the past as ‘having-been’ with respect to its future potentials. In Being and Time, Heidegger argues (King 234): … only in so far as Dasein is (as the having been [bin-gewesen] or an T that is) can it come towards (zukunftig) itself futurally in such a way that it comes back to itself. Dasein is, as authentically having-been, an authentically futural anticipation of one’s utmost and ownmost possibility coming back, in an understanding way, to one’s ownmost having-been. Dasein can only be what it has been insofar as it is futural. One’s already having-been arises, in a certain way, from the future. On the other hand, Heidegger explains that Dasein is spatial because it is embodied by directionality and ‘de-severence’ (Large 50). According to Heidegger, de-severing refers to eliminating distance—specifically, removing the distance of something and creating closeness. De-severence is the form of space wherein Dasein recognizes objects in-the-world as reflectively distant or close. Specifically, spatiality here is Dasein’s ‘lived space’ (Large 50). Individuals ‘exists’ spatially in the world in a way that they can be distant or close in relation to their meaning or value. Moreover, as regards directionality, Dasein shows how a specific object in the world is placed or situated. Avoiding the Cartesian dualism or the division between subject and object, existential psychologists view human existence as a union of the subject and the object. Hence, subjectivity will not exist without the objective world. There is only, as existentialists argue, ‘being-in-the-world’ (Kaslow & Massey 306). Treating a human being objectively but not subjectively makes the person an automatic outcome of psychodynamic, cognitive, environmental, and biological aspects. Moreover, omitting objective ideas in favor of an entirely subjective understanding disregards the role of natural and social forces and weaknesses in psychological life. As stated by Rollo May and colleagues (1994), a reality is made up of both the subjective and the objective—the reality of the existing individual, the person who experiences being-in-the-world. Ludwig Binswanger, a Swiss psychiatrist, was inspired by numerous of Freud’s insights about individual motives and instincts, but he was more inspired by the idea of being-in-the-world by Heidegger. Binswanger’s key contribution was his concept of ‘fundamental meaning structure’, which denotes “the unlearned ability of individuals to perceive meaning in their world and to go beyond specific situations to deal with life issues” (Schneider, Bugental, & Pierson 12). This general capacity to identify meanings gives human beings the chance to create their own life and their future. By placing emphasis on individuals’ worldviews or perceptions of life and their current experience, Binswanger successfully helped them recognize and appreciate the essence of their actions and become their real selves through appreciating their connections to themselves, other people, and the world. Henri Ellenberger argued that Binswanger’s existential thought was a major point in the growth of existentialism in psychology. Binswanger defined his method of understanding an individual (May et al. 201): “We know that we have to ascertain the kind of spatialization and temporalization, of lighting and coloring: the texture, or materiality and motility, of the world-design toward which the given form of existence or its individual configuration casts itself”. The world-design is understood through an individual’s verbal narrative and language. Being-in-the-world, in essence, is defined as the vital interconnectedness between the world and the self. The world and the self are inseparable in the sense that a person exists in and takes part in the construction of his/her world. Existential psychologists have identified particular modes of being-in-the-world. Binswanger suggested three modes of world: ‘umwelt’, ‘mitwelt’, and ‘eigenwelt’ (Kaslow & Massey 306). The ‘umwelt’, or the natural world, comprises physical states, bodily processes, biological impulses, and needs. The components that make up ‘umwelt’ reveal the ‘thrownness’ of human beings, features of the human world that exist to begin with and to which individuals should adapt. This includes specific ‘limit situations’, like the realities of life’s cycle (Kaslow & Massey 306-307). Such situations cannot be sidestepped or controlled, but a person can cope with them or make a choice. The ‘mitwelt’, which is the second mode, refers to the relational world. This involves the world of interactions with other people, interrelatedness among individuals, alongside the cultural and social situations identified by such interrelatedness. ‘Thrownness’ still exists in ‘mitwelt’ for individuals are rooted in particular sociocultural setting and historical periods that affect to a certain extent modes of interaction with other people (Kaslow & Massey 307). The third mode, which is the ‘eigenwelt’, comprises the personal domain, the world of self with regard to itself, the domain of understanding personal experiences and seeing the world in distinctive ways. This mode creates the foundation for creating the meaning of interactions. ‘Uberwelt’ is the fourth mode of world suggested by Van Deurzen, to refer to the spiritual domain and meaning creation of existence, as well as the principles and values by which the person exists (Kaslow & Massey 307). Therefore, in its entirety, the theoretical perspective that makes up existential psychology offer a perceptive understanding of the human situation and important experiences. Conclusions In spite of the popular contemporary trend that dislocates the self and personal will, this essay tried to demonstrate that human subjectivity is an important and evolving experiential mechanism of ‘becoming’. Both experiential psychologists and psychoanalysts are certain that ‘being’ exists, not as a predetermined outcome of outside forces, but as a combination of subject and the objective world that has the ability to choose its direction or future. An individual is a subject who exists in a world made up of different forces that are temporally, spatially, socially, and psychologically understood with respect to the past, present, and future potentialities. Therefore, in both the psychoanalytic perspective and existentialism, individuals can only reach the process of ‘becoming’ through understanding or knowledge. Works Cited Cavell, Marcia. The Psychoanalytic Mind: From Freud to Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Print. Fisher, S. & R.P. Greenberg. The scientific credibility of Freud’s theories and therapy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. Print. Gendlin, Eugene. Heidegger and the Philosophy of Psychology. Review of Existential Psychology & Psychiatry: Heidegger and Psychology, 1978. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. Guntrip, Harry. Psychoanalytic Theory, Therapy, and the Self: A Basic Guide to the Human Personality in Freud, Erikson, Klein, Sullivan, Fairbairn, Hartmann, Jacobson, and Winnicott. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Print. Kaslow, Florence & Robert Massey. Comprehensive Handbook of Psychotherapy, Interpersonal/Humanistic/Existential. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Print. King, Magda. A Guide to Heidegger’s Being and Time. New York: SUNY Press, 2001. Print. Large, William. Heidegger’s Being and Time. UK: Edinburgh University Press, 2008. Print. May, Rollo, Ernest Angel, & Henri Ellenberger. Existence. UK: Jason Aronson, 1994. Print. Mitchell, Stephen & Margaret Black. Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1995. Print. Schneider, Kirk, James Bugental, & Fraser Pierson. The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice. London: SAGE, 2001. Print. Read More