Western Representation of China - Essay Example

Western representation of China Introduction Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations in the world that is considered to have begun 4000 years ago. China is regarded as one of the early nations of human civilization besides Egypt and Greece that is particularly known for inventing writing. China is also a cradle for the human race since the fossils of the first Homo erectus and fossils of the Lantian man were found in China. Evidence of China’s civilization can be traced back to approximately to 7,000 years ago from the ruins of Hubei provinces and Daxi Culture in Sichuan among many other provinces. Archeological reports depict as the population of China increased, small cities and villages begun to emerge. Moreover Chinese farming led to the early discovery herbal medicine a the discovery of silk worms as a raw material for making garments which replaced the traditional use of animal skins for clothes. In addition, Chinese people learned how to make vessels and weapons using copper (China.org, 2001). Historically, the perception of the West on China has evolved with time. Initially, the Westerns perceived China as a country of marvel and miracles (Martínez-Robles, 2008). This was mainly because before the 15th century Chinese civilization was one of the most advanced forms of civilization around the world. China had the most advanced knowledge in technology, traditional medicine and irrigation systems (China.org, 2001). However, following the rapid growth and development of Europe in the 18th century, the West’s perception of China changed, China was now considered as a backward nation without progress (Martínez-Robles, 2008). Western perspective of China as “the other pole of human existence” The West’s perspective of China as “the other pole of human existence” begun with early explorers such as Marco Polo, renowned early explorer in China in between the late 12th century and the early 13th century. When Polo first came to China, he was astonished by China’s level of prosperity and sophistication and how it had by far surpassed 13th century Europe. Polo recorded his encounters in China in his travel memoirs, “The Travels of Marco Polo. This memoire became the basis of West’s outlook towards China (Shen & Wu 1996). In his travel memoirs, Polo presented to Europe information about Chinese civilization. Polo observed that Chinese civilization was different from western civilizations since China had vast resources, a vast population and prosperous culture. Polo vividly described China’s displays of luxury and prosperity, illustrating that Chinese palaces such as the court of the Great Khan were made of gold and silver and that the designs of the building were more sophisticated and advanced than those in found Europe (Dawson 1967). Zheng (1980) notes that unlike many European nations which were at this time struggling with overpopulation, the spread of disease and lack of proper sewerage systems, China had advanced in arts, medicine, literacy, technology , political instutionalisation and in other socio-economic parameters. This implied that in the 13th century, according to accounts of historical explorers, China could be considered the richest country in the world (Zheng 1980). Due to Polo’s description of China, people in the West began to view China as “the other pole of human existence “since its alleged advancement was utopian (Dawson 1967). It is worth noting that the unexpected civilization of China and the lack of understanding on the part of early explorers concerning the socio-cultural background of China led to an exaggerated representation of Chinese civilization. The “awe” that most early explorers were subjected to when they came to China made them to consider China as another world, consequently this brought about the “otherness” perception about China (Spence 1990; Zhang 1988). Apart from the early explorers who came to China, Jesuit missionaries from the West played a key role in determining Western representations of Chinese civilization as “the other pole of human existence”. One of their key aims of coming to China was to spread Christianity and civilization ideologies from the West. In order for them to realise this, they had have good interactions with the Chinese people, they also had to understand the Chinese culture (Needham 1970). The availability of funds was also another factor that would help facilitate their mission in China. In a bid to raise funds, the Jesuit missionaries produced and distributed reading materials in Europe that depicted various aspects of Chinese civilization (Guy 1990). In these readings, the Jesuit missionaries acknowledged that in spite of the fact that Chinese people did not live according to Christian ideologies, they were highly civilized with regards to their social and political organization and governance (Zhang, 1988). These readings extensively praised the Chinese civilization such that it brought about feelings of rivalry amongst the people in the West. For some Chinese civilization was a mirror in which the countries in the West can gauge in order to identify their shortcomings. People from the West often assumed that Christianity and Western ideologies were the only means through humanity can acquire civilization in the social and political structures. However, the level of civilization despite the fact that they were not exposed to Christian and Western ideologies further enforced the stereotype of China as the “the other pole of human existence” (Zhang, 1988). As earlier stated, the 13th century witnessed the rapid advancement of Chinese civilization. The Chinese people progressed rapidly in agriculture, they employed advanced systems of irrigation in farming and they discovered silk from warms an alternative to the garments made from animal skins. They had also discovered various forms of traditional medicine that proved to be effective in curing illnesses. Furthermore, Chinese civilization can be attributed to the invention of compass and the making of vessels and weapons by using copper (China.org, 2001). When some these products were introduced in the Western markets, they enforced the perspective of China as “the other pole of human existence” since they were unique and unusual. Products from China such as silk fabrics, wall papers, fans and products made from fabrics among many other received a good reception in Europe due to their exclusiveness. This products gave the impression that China was a “majestic fairyland” hence the perception that China as the other pole of human existence” (Zheng, 1980). Following the rapid growth and development of Europe in the 18th century, the West’s perception of China changed into a negative one (Martínez-Robles 2008). The positive idealization of China as a “majestic fairyland” was replaced by the representation of China as a backward nation without progress (Martínez-Robles 2008). Dawson (1967) observes that people from the West considered China as a nation that is “stuck in an eternal stand still.” This negative representation was based on the perceived notion that China had rigid traditions and had a backward culture. Moreover, China is often scorned for its lack of focus when it comes to fortifying its military strength (Spence, 2000). China is also viewed as the global hub for imitations, “knock offs” and substandard economic goods which are made possible by its large population and pool of cheap labour (Hirschberg 1993). As a result, China is often criticized for dishonest economic practices. Over time, Western representation of China was not only based on its civilization it extended to the physical characteristics of the Chinese people this also emphasized the representation of China as “the other pole of human existence.” Initially the Chinese were considered as whites however following the dissolution of their reputation, people from the West began to consider Chinese people as yellow(Mungello, 2009). Some studies classified the Chinese people as homo-monstrous instead of homo-sapiens this classification was based on the conic nature Chinese head-shapes (Spence, 2000). Negative perceptions of China in the West in the latter part of the 20th and early 21st century are frequently based on opinions concerning human rights in China. In the period between the end of the Second World War (1945) and the end of the cold war (1989-90), Western perceptions of China, and diplomatic relations between China and the West, had improved considerably (Hirshberg 1993). However, since 1990, Chinese culture has often come under criticism from the West due to the Chinese government’s suppression of democracy and it human rights standards. As a result, China is often considered by international human rights groups and Non Governmental Organizations as one of the worst violators of universal human rights (Peerenboom 2005). This has raised the so called Asian Debate that evaluates the argument whether international human rights are consistent with the values of Chinese and Asian people at large (Svensson 2009). Successive regimes in China have attracted negative international attention from the West for what are considered gross violations of international human rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of expression and freedom of assembly since the end of the cold war. Subsequently, China has been viewed as antidemocratic, authoritarian, brutal and even “evil” (Hirshberg 1993). The Chinese have countered criticism of their human rights record by claiming that they are being held to double standards (Peerenboom 2005). Chinese governments have repeatedly pointed out that the West has selectively turned a blind eye to human rights violations in other countries such as Uganda, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia and singled them out for criticism due to its size, population and the combined military and economic threat it poses to Western powers. The Chinese have also criticized universal human rights as simply localized western values (Donnelly 2007). On the issue of human rights, the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 signaled a reversal the trend of positive perceptions of Chinese culture in the West. The incident re-awakened previous negative stereotypes of the Chinese as “communist” and “evil” among Europeans and Americans for what was considered use of unreasonable force in suppressing democracy (Hirshberg 1993). The Images that were relayed across the world showing the brutality of the Chinese government as military tanks rolled into Tiananmen Square to put down the student revolution sparked outrage and in the West, signaled an unfavorable shift in attitudes towards China and increased tension in Sino-American and Sino-European diplomatic ties (Hirshberg 1993). The situation was only exacerbated by the 1995-1996 Taiwan straits crisis. These negative stereotypes and perceptions of China have carried over into the 21st century. The run up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics clearly demonstrated Western perceptions of Chinese authority over their role in Tibet and their involvement in Darfur, Sudan (Price 2008). The Olympics were branded by human rights advocate Mia Farrow as the “Genocide Olympics” due to China’s alleged and perceived support for the Sudanese government in Darfur (Farrow and Farrow 2007). China is often perceived as a no-strings attached development partner and economic donor which has attracted such criticism for its endorsement of authoritarian regimes in the third world to access natural resources such as oil and minerals. Human rights groups and Non Governmental Organizations used the Olympics as a platform to stage numerous protests over China’s involvement in Darfur in Europe and America (Price 2008). Attempts to disrupt events such as the Olympic torch relay were also staged due to China’s brutal repression of Tibetan autonomy. A particularly graphic symbol of prevailing Western perceptions of China at the time was the alteration of the Olympic flag’s five interlocking rings to five interlocking handcuffs. Conclusion Prior to the 15th century, Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient and advanced civilizations around the world. China had the most advanced knowledge in technology, traditional medicine and irrigation systems (China.org, 2001). As a result, China was represented in the West as a “majestic fairyland” The West’s perspective of China as “the other pole of human existence” begun with the early explorers and missionaries. When the explorers and missionaries first came to China they were astonished by China’s level of prosperity and sophistication and how it had by far surpassed the 13th century Europe. China had advanced in arts, medicine, literacy, technology, political instutionalisation and in other socio-economic parameters. Subsequently, they recorded and distributed records that depicted Chinese civilization as utopia. Due to these descriptions of China, people in the West begun to view China as “the other pole of human existence. (Dawson 1967). However, Western perceptions of China turned negative in the 19th century. Chinese culture was viewed as rigid, old fashioned and backward. In the early 20th century, China regained her prosperity and attracted positive sentiment from the West. But after the cold war, negative Chinese stereotypes were reawakened due to China’s poor human rights record, perceived economic dishonesty, low standards for its products and unconditional support for authoritarian regimes in the third world. Bibliography China.org, 2001, Formation of the Chinese Civilization. Retrieved on May 4, 2010 from Farrow M. & Farrow, R., 2007, The Genocide Olympics. 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Zhang, L., 1988, The Myth of the Other: China in the Eyes of the West. Critical Inquiry, Vol 15, No.1, pp.108-131. Read More