The Rise and Fall of the Mongol Empire - Essay Example

THE MONGOL EMPIRE Name Course Instructor’s Name Date Introduction An empire has been defined as a state that has great and strong political, military, and economic powers or might (Allsen, 1997). One ethnic and cultural group of people usually rules Empires. The empire seeks to dominate what they perceive weaker states, in order for it to grow even stronger (Bryce, 2009). They do so by taking men from the enemy camps and using them in frontiers as soldiers and taking over their lands (Nardo, 2005). Empires are entities of ancient world, since democratic governments in the modern world have replaced them. Empires acquired wealth and powers by invasions, and conquering in battlefields. The Rise and Fall of the Mongol Empire and the Roman Empire Among the ancient empires, there was the Mongol Empire. It was in effect between the 13th and the 14th C, Spreading its might from far Eastern Europe to the vast lands of Asia. It went down in the history books as the largest empire that ever ruled. It came to be due to coalition of two tribes, the Mongol and Turkic (Gibbon & Bury, 2004). When Genghis Khan was made the empire of the Mongolian dynasty, he increased its powers and developed it even more, by invading neighboring countries. Before its fall, it was estimated that it once covered more than 20% of the total earth’s surface (Howorth, 1965). Its roots were from the sea of Japan to Danube, moving from North Siberia to modern Cambodia, with a total population capacity of more than 90 million (Buell, 2003). It is believed that it must have been involved in old world wars when it invaded continents as far as Europe, Africa, Australia, and most of its Asian countries (Oakes & Kia, 2004). It is during this dynasty that technologies, goods, ideas, and concepts were greatly brought and integrated across Eurasia (Spielvogel, 2008). Another empire that we will use as a point of discussion is the Roman Empire. It was established during the reign of Augustus, who was the first Roman Empire (Heather, 2006). It was led using autocratic systems of governance and ruled over vast lands in The Mediterranean and Europe. Initially it was a republic, but due to wars, and dictatorial leaderships like the rise of Julius Caesar to power (Howorth, 1965). At its strongest conquest, the empire controlled more than six million 5% of earth’s total surface area (Reid, 1997). The world as we know it today was greatly influenced by Romans i.e. Systems of religion, language, science, systems of law and governments, architectural models and designs and even philosophy. The Mongol Empire like the Roman Empire, although the largest in the world, would later fall (Kradin & Tatiana, 2006). The Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanate defected from the rule of Kublai Khan thus resulting in the fracturing of the empire into four empires also known as khanates (Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, 2000; Spielvogel, 2008). These khanates pursued their own interests and goals. The four empires that were under the original empire were the Golden Horde dynasty, Ilkhanate, Chagatai Empire, and the Yuan dynasty (Buell, 2003). Although Kublai and Khagans reined mightily, it never compared with the reign of Genghis Khan. The final straw came with the fall of Yuan khanate, which made the Mongol Empire be dissolved. The Roman Empire as Mongol empire derived their strength by conquering other nations close and those in far seas (Howorth, 1965). To secure fully its territories from being easily evaded, the Roman Empire was divided into two authorities: the Western Roman Empire and the eastern Roman Empire. In the year 400 onwards, the Western Roman Empire was ruled by figureheads though the real rulers were military men (Kradin & Tatiana, 2006). Mercenaries led by Odoacer who was denied lands by Orestes in Italy, revolted against him and took over the empire from Romulus Augustus in the year 476. The empire was to really decline after continuous rule of none-Romans among other factors (Nardo, 2005). The Eastern Roman Empire was later to fall (Allsen, 1997). The ruining of Constantinople with its great treasures, land divisions, and lack of continous governance are cited as the major reasons why the eastern Roman Empire fell. Ottoman Turks seized Constantinople, and declared themselves under the rule of Mehmed 11 (Woods, 2002).This marked the end of the rule of the Roman Empire in the year 1400s. Military Structures and Strategies The Mongol empire was strong in its military capacity (May, 2007). Although differently constituted, from that of the Roman Empire, Mongolians were effective in their execution of battle strategies. Their military set up was initially constituted from the steppe’s tradition (Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, 2000). They would later constitute their military units into squads made of ten men referred to as arbat. The arbats were combined, ten of them, which was a hundred, to make up a zuut. Ten zuuts that created a unit of a thousand known as myanghan (Brent, 1976). Ten of these myanghan units were constituted into a unit of ten thousand, which can be equated to the modern military division (Spielvogel, 2008). During battles, the Mongol armies used well established and coordinated methods to conquer. They used archers, lances, catapult, and even used weapons from wood (Nardo, 2005). They used captured men as artisans and blacksmiths to mint metallic weapons. In the same breath, they used engineers from China and Corps to create trebuchets, rockets and smoke emitters, which they used to confuse formations laid by their enemies on fortified territories (Woods, 2002). These techniques were used to lay siege in Europe. Military personnel under the Mongol rule were put under intense training and shown techniques used to improve mobility and increase their speed (Oakes & Kia, 2004). Unlike soldiers in the Roman Empire who relied on supply lines/ chains to invade other territories, Mongol armies were trained not to (Weatherford, 2004). They carried light weapons and used light armours thus increasing speed and mobility (Kradin & Tatiana, 2006). Unlike the Roman soldiers, who equipped themselves with heavy machinery and armoured themselves heavily. The army generals maintained constant communication to soldiers on the ground using couriers, thus knowing what the enemy was doing, when to attack and when to retreat (Buell, 2003). Mongolian army had high regard for discipline (Bryce, 2009). Before any single invasion on an enemy camp, they would send spies, collect important information that concerned their enemies, plan and carefully strategize the best way to attack. Conscription was for males above the age of 15 and not exceeding 60 years (May, 2007). They would be taken through strenuous exercises until the last man stands. Mongol soldiers had an added advantage to their rivals (Allsen, 1997). They were able to fight using five to ten fronts at a go, due to their good execution of speed, organization and mobility thus easily overpowering them since the enemy camp may have only one front (Oakes & Kia, 2004). Their conquests over vast lands in Eurasia has been attributed to their ability to withstand very adverse weather conditions like stormy winter seasons and transversing frozen seas and rivers (Gibbon & Bury, 2004). Their great techniques in river battles saw them win in Mohi war in 1241. The win over Khwarezmshah, they used barges to obscure their enemies using the river to escape (Nelson, 2001). The Roman Empire military structures were divided into legions, axilia, and the navy. Initially, legions that were created were so many. A legion would consist of more than 5000 people, and each legionary would serve in the army for 25 years. The numbers were later reduced by Octavian, to a maximum number of 30 legions. The new number was easily managed and financed. Legions that were suspected of being disloyal to the Empire were completely done away with. The number was further minimized to not more than 25 when three legions were totally killed by Germans. However, over the centuries, the number would fluctuate depending on the General in charge (Nardo, 2005). Praetorian Guard was formed to maintain law and order of the public. They served for a maximum time of 16 years although they received better pays than those in legions. The auxilia were not held in high regard as the legions. They were formed by none- Romans, who after serving in the army for more than 25 years would be rewarded with citizenship to be Roman citizens. Legions were paid better than they were (Hull, 1997). There was finally the navy. They helped in supplying and transporting legions from one territory to the next for war. They were also used to protect frontiers. They played a significant role of protecting maritime routes of trade, which were often rich ground for pirates (Reid, 1997). Although the army was more superior and influencial than the navy, the navy did more work of patrolling coasts to the empire and keeping it safe (Woods, 2002). Religious Structures and Policies As The Mongol Empire conquered new territories, it found people practicing different religions. They accepted and tolerated religions from other cultures and integrated them into their own. During the reign of Emperor Genghis, there were converts and believers of most religions (Reid, 1997). This necessitated him to implement statutes that allowed freedom of worship. Under his reign, leaders from various religions did not pay taxes and they were not allowed to work. Although the four dynasties were followers of religions like Shamanism, Buddhism, and Tengriism, they would later convert to Islam (Prawdin & Chaliand, 2006). The Mongol empire ensured that they built worship places for believers of Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity among others, and encouraged open air discussion between religious leaders to the public. The Roman Empire as the Mongol Empire was tolerant to the new religions as long as the new religions were loyal to the empire (Heather, 2006). They ruled that one would be allowed to follow their religion and worship the Roman gods to indicate that they were still loyal to the Emperor. This was to be a point of conflict over time. Other religions felt that the Romans indicated that their religion was more superior to others (Hull, 1997). History tells of massive persecutions of Christians during this era, which refused to bow down to the Roman gods. Religion as Buddhism was integrated in the Mongol dynasty in the 1200. The first Buddhist prince during the Mongol empire was Prince Koton. All other forms of Buddhism like the Chinese, Indian and Tibetan held roots in the empire, though they were later left by imperials who converted to Islam. Buddhism was not found in the Roman Empire. Christianity had its roots in both the Mongol and Roman Empires (Heather, 2006). Christianity was spread in Mongol by missionaries. Though it was not adopted by many, there are known people in the Mongol dynasty who converted to it; Genghis daughter in law Sorghaghtani, Golden Horde’s khan Sartaq, Levant, the general of Mongol army among others. Churches like the Apostolic church, Orthodox church are just but a few of the churches that were in the Mongol dynasty (Lane, 2006). Islam however, received more converts not only those who were followers of indigenous Mongol religions but also Christians. The Roman Empire on the other hand at first took the Christian religion as a cult and not as a distinct religion per say. Christians received the worst persecution in this empire than it has ever had in any other ancient and classical empires (Brent, 1976). Nero who was greatly blamed for the Great fire of Rome, and in a bid to calm the population said that it was Christians to blame. This led to further execution and persecution of Jews and Christians (Heather, 2006). Emperor Constantine insisted and converted to Christianity, as the religion had gained roots in most parts of Europe. This led to the religion being used as the official Empires religion (Prawdin & Chaliand, 2006). Other religions like Judaism were accepted as long as they would pay taxes. However, with the arrival of the first Christians, Romans were unable to identify Judaism from Christianity thereby prohibiting both. Islam was easily accepted and adopted by the Mongols (Hull, 1997). They consulted Muslim faithful who were more trained they were in various professions, thereby wining hearts of most Mongolians. Muslims easily spoke in Turk and Mongol languages thus easily converting them (Nelson, 2001). Economic Ventures and Policies Mongols were nomads. Therefore, land was fundamental in their way of living. During the Mongol empire, they would divide commodities seized in wars into shares (Weatherford, 2004). The imperial family, soldiers, and the common Mongolian residents would get a share depending on the agreed terms. A khanate would receive revenues from a fellow dynasty, accrued from sending prisoners like artisans, engineers, and other prisoner with professional skills to them. These prisoners were valued for they were integral in coordinating and execution of war plans (Allsen, 1997). Genghis before he died, he established systems of using paper money, use of precious stones and trade of silk. The first money to be used was from China called ingot and used silk as a reserve and later use of gold and silver. The four khanates later formed a monetary system that was unified, and used silver for reserve. Just as the Mongol empire, the Roman Empire was keen on controlling the circulation of currency (Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, 2000). They also minted coins, and placed the image of reigning emperor on both sides of the coin. They used paper money to print political and propaganda messages like new conquests in new territories. The emperor issued gold and silver coins while bronze coins were circulated by the senate. Imperial provincial procurator supervised the mints in the provincial levels, a chief financial minister was in charge of imperial mints, and officials from the Senatorial treasury, would govern the senatorial mints (Weatherford, 2004). While the Mongol Empire concentrated more on revenues on shares and production of silk to develop their economies, Roman Empire invested heavily in extraction of precious metals and stones in large scale (Buell, 2003). The use of techniques such as the hydraulic extraction methods, hushing and their expertise in mining helped a lot in massive mining of iron, lead, silver, and gold (Lane, 2006). This massive mining meant more minted coins hence more coins being available for circulation and trading, and the rest being saved in the economy. Both empires are known to have influenced or sought to create good international relations. The Mongol Empire specifically the Yuan Khanate is singularly responsible for reuniting China and helping it expand its frontiers. They accepted other international cultures and adopted them as their own e.g. language and religion (Gibbon & Bury, 2004). Chagatai is a language named after Genghis’s son used by Turks, which was originally Russian. Through international relations and treaties, The Mongol and Russians signed a treaty allowing Russians to collect taxes on behalf of the Mongol empire. This is seen as the beginning of Moscow becoming prominent (Prawdin & Chaliand, 2006). International Relations Mongol empire established trade routes around Asia and Europe (Kradin & Tatiana, 2006). Ambassadors and merchants who travelled widely and represented states in and outside the Mongol Empire, were great sources of information for Europe thus helping it colonize other states and continents (Stewart, 2010). Mongols respected their trade and commercial partners through out their reign, by protecting merchants and ambassadors that held authorized documents (Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, 2000). This helped them create more trade over the land and seas. In pursuit of good international relations, the Mongol dynasty created road networks that neighbouring merchant would use to trade and exempted them from paying taxes (Antonio, 2001). The Roman Empire although is known to have produced systems of architecture and policies of tax collection, it is not known to have relied or fostered international relations (Nelson, 2001). It preferred to guard its territories jealously, annexing new ones. However, they help guard coasts of Rhine rivers and the coast of Mediterranean seas, which were attacked by pirates (Brent, 1976). These coasts were prime in establishment of the maritime Mediterranean trade routes. Both empires were not keen on special treatment on minorities, this was so if the minorities posed no danger to the throne, or they were not disloyal. Disloyal minorities were captured and kept as prisoners Conclusion The Mongol Empire was the largest empire that ever was in the history of humankind. As with any governance, it had negative effects on the world, as we know it. This was because it influenced large population of people on culture, religion, and trade. It is in this reign that most deaths happened, changing Asia’s demography. This was attributed to massive deaths during wars. The most remarkable aspect of this dynasty was that they introduced the system of writing. The empire is remembered by its unique military structures and its ability to execute good organization in the battle fields. References Allsen, T. 1997. Commodity and exchange in the Mongol Empire: a cultural history of Islamic textiles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Amitai-Preiss, R. & Morgan, D. 2000. The Mongol empire & its legacy. New York: Brill. Antonio, S. 2001. Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors, and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview Press. Buell, P.D. 2003. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. New York: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.  Brent, P. 1976. The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy. Book Club Associates, London. 1976. Bryce, J. 2009. The Holy Roman Empire. New York: Wildside Press LLC. 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