The Mongolians and the Mongol Empire - Coursework Example

The Mongols Order No. 198864 No: of Pages: 11 Premium 6530 The world’s empires possess a very unique, interesting and lengthy pre- modern history and as such the history of the Mongols is in no way different. In fact, due to its extensive expansion and continuous development, it is considered as one of the largest land empires of the world. What fascinates historians and scholars alike is the phenomenon that though the Mongols are a nomadic tribe of the inner Asian steppes, yet they rose to become the masters of an enormous and dynamic empire. Many of the world’s empires such as the Byzantine empire, the Persian Empire from the sixth to the fourth century B.C.E., Alexanders Empire, the Mughal Empire in India, the Ottoman, the Roman, and a string of various Chinese empires, all have their own unique pattern of progress, but in sheer size the Mongol Empire outwitted all of them. The origin of the Mongols lies in obscurity but generally it is believed that the Huns who invaded parts of Europe and formed their dynasty between the years 916 and 1125 in China might have been the Mongols. The end of the thirteenth century witnessed the expansion of the great steppe empire right from the Pacific Ocean to the Eastern European plains which included most of Asia. The Mongol Empire was cosmopolitan by nature which contributed greatly to the stability of trade and commerce. Founder of the Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan One of histories most charismatic leaders was Temuchin, otherwise famously known as Genghis Khan, which meant Oceanic Ruler or Firm, Resolute Ruler, whose dynamic leadership qualities helped him to succeed in various wars making him a great conqueror. His real name was Temuchin but he gained this title when he became victorious in successive wars and finally dominated Mongolia in the year 1206. In fact without Genghis Khan there would not have been a Mongolia. It was because of the powerful leadership of Genghis Khan that the Mongols successfully emerged as a unified nation and a name to reckon with in the history of the world. Early in life, Genghis Khan faced a very rough life and was given in marriage to Borte who was from a different tribe. He was very persevering but received another blow when Borte was kidnapped. Slowly he gathered his supporters and through sheer hard work donned the mantle of leadership among his Mongol subjects. When Genghis Khan rose to power in 1185, he was faced with the most difficult years of his life as he endured many setbacks and hardships. Finally he succeeded in uniting all the tribes together as one single tribe called the Mongols. Thereafter he embarked on a mission which included revenge for all the offenses he experienced in the past, demand for riches and booty, and a senseless greed for riches and amassing of territory. His megalomaniacal stature made him one of the most dreaded and feared men in the history of the world. Genghis Khan formed an alliance with Toghril who was his father’s brother regained his wife Borte and assumed paramount power in the region of the steppes. But eventually he waged a war against Toghril because their relationship had gone bad and obviously Genghis Khan was victorious and dominated Mongolia. Expansion of the Mongolian Empire: But Genghis Khan was not content to be where he was. Heading the Mongols in 1207, he led operations against Xi – Xia which included parts of Tibet and a good part of North – Western China. Finally in 1210, the Xi – Xia submitted to Genghis Khan. The Uighurs too surrendered to him and in return became his valued administrators throughout his empire. In 1211, he again led his troops against the Chin Dynasty and this war continued until 1234 This war took such a long time because he was called away from the campaign in 1219 to settle an issue that occurred in the Khwarazm Empire which included parts of modern Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. The incident that took place was that a caravan of people who were under the protection of Genghis Khan, were brutally murdered in Otrar, a city of the Khwarazm Empire. Since his armies were engaged in China, he sought to settle the issue peacefully. But this was not to be so since the issue was forced by the Khwarazm Empire. Genghis Khan took his revenge by humiliating and executing the envoys and then left a trusted General Muqali, to continue the battle against the Chin while he returned to war in Central Asia. The Mongols waged war in Central Asia which lasted from 1219 – 1222. But Genghis Khan had another score to settle with Xi – Xia who had insulted Genghis Khan by not providing him with troops for his campaign. In 1226, he led his troops against the Xi- Xia in battle. But during the campaign he went hunting and fell from his horse and was fatally injured. Finally due to internal injuries, Genghis Khan passed away. But even after his death, the Mongols continued the war and won it. After this he was buried in a secret place which to this day remains a mystery to modern historians. Genghis Khan has left a very impressive legacy behind making him one of the most strategic genius’s of all time. The Mongols were so faithful to their leader that they continued waging war till their empire extended from the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic Sea. “There came into the world a blue gray wolf Whose destiny was Heaven’s will”. Paul Kahn, an eminent writer used the Chinese version called the Yuan Ch’ao Pi Shih and adapted it to the scholarly translation done in English by Francis Woodman Cleaves and gives us readers a world of knowledge in the most simple language possible, making it very easy for us to understand. The original version of “The Secret History of the Mongols” is the most ancient text which was written in the 13th century, a few decades after the death of the Mongol hero Genghis Khan. This priceless book was the royal family’s own private possession. “The Secret History of the Mongols” is a treasure trove of factual information, not only about the life and career about Genghis Khan but also about the Mongolian people. (Paul Kahn) “It thus stands as a cultural and historical record of unusual value”. (Paul Kahn) Describing this book Gary Snyder says, “….it can be read alongside of the Beowulf story, the Homer epics or even the Scandinavian sagas, as examples of the heroic epic form”. (Gary Snyder) The Mongolian Tribe: The Mongolian tribe was predominantly Asian and a pastoral kind of people whose traditional occupation was grazing their huge herds of cattle in rich pastures. Besides cattle they also reared camels, horses and sheep. They lived in felt covered houses called yurts when they were not on the pasturage with their cattle. They number approximately around six million and are scattered or distributed mainly in the Republic of Mongolia, the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China, and Kalmykia and the Buryat Republic of Russia. The Mongolian religion was the traditional Shamanism, until the 16th century when Buddhism was introduced. Both the religions competed for supreme status and as a result a new religion called Lamaism was formed which was a combination of the two religions. The earliest written language of the Mongols dates back to 1240. Later on when they employed the Uigurs as administrators in their kingdom, they adopted the script used by them. The barbarous horsemen conquerors were known as “the devil’s horsemen” who instilled fear into their victims “who carried everything before them and left nothing behind”. They left devastation and destruction in their paths wherever they went; be it in the Syrian deserts or the mountain passes of Afghanistan, the snowy plains of Russia and sea fights along the Vietnam coast. Like a monstrous spiders web, the Mongol conquests affected the lives and livelihoods of countless peasants and kings. (Stephen Turnbull, 1940 -1400) In history, there is no other country or nation that have waged so many wars and conquered so much of territories than the armies of the Mongols. No other army in history has invoked so much of hate and loathing in their victims than the Mongolian army who literally slaughtered and vanquished them. There is no other army in history who marched against Russia during the winter season and survived its wrath. These are some of the feats of these ‘barbarian’ people. (Stephen Turnbull, 1940 -1400) The Mongolian Administration: After the death of Genghis Khan, his sons continued in the footsteps of their father. They drew up an Imperial code for everyone to follow. It also promulgated organizational guidelines for their nation. The administration of the Mongols were streamlined which made it easier for trade and commerce to carry on easily. They made Karakorum their capital and operated from there. It was situated close to the Orkhon River and was the Central Republic of the Mongol tribe. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2004) From their capital Karakorum, the barbarous hordes of Mongol tribes, vanquished nearby areas which included Europe and China. By the year 1260, the four sons of Genghis Khan had domain over a whole Eurasian Empire which was divisioned into four separate parts called Khanates. The first was called the Great Khanate which included all of China and most parts of Asia. The Great Khanate was ruled by Genghis Khan’s grandson called Kublai Khan and was titled the Yuan dynasty. The others were the Jagatai khanate situated in Turkistan, the other was the Kipchack khanate, or the Empire of the Golden Horde that was founded by a Mongol named Batu Khan in Russia; and the last khanate was situated in Persia. China and the Mongols: China’s enemies were the barbarians of the North, the Mongols who traversed along the boundary of the Gobi Desert from place to place with all their herds and flocks of sheep. During this period, the Emperor who ruled the Chu Dynasty was not a powerful ruler and hence the Mongol barbarians “invaded the Middle Kingdom and compelled the Son of Heaven to remove his residence far into the interior of the country”. (Michael Prawdin, Eden Paul, Cedar Paul, 1940) When China became a military state one of the Tsin Emperors built a great wall called the Great Wall of China” to protect Northern China against the Mongols. However, these Hunnish tribes were able to cross it after a couple of decades. Meanwhile the Emperors of the Han Dynasty conquered Central Asia and opened a new route for silk trade to be carried on with Rome. Thereafter they defeated the Mongols and drove them back to the Gobi desert. The success of the rapid economic development in China is greatly attributed to its Confucian values that form its basis. The ancient traditions, customs and the family system that were once thought to be impediments to China’s progress are now being praised for great success. Gradually, the People’s Republic of China began to fade as China emerged as a multi- national state in which the minorities enjoyed political, cultural and territorial autonomy to a certain extent where they were looked upon as non – political, and non – territorial ethnic minorities who constituted the Chinese Nation. This sort of Nationalism gave rise to an interesting multi-culturalism where non – Chinese heroes such as the Mongols who were for a long time known as China’s enemies have now been accepted as Chinese. Currently, in China’s worship places, Genghis Khan occupies a very important place having been replaced by the former hero of China named Yue Fei who has been expunged the history text books of China having been deemed a narrow nationalist. According to the Chinese, Genghis Khan was not only China’s unifier but much more importantly “the only Chinese who ever defeated Europeans” thus bringing with it the first and maybe the only racial glory to the Chinese nation. This twentieth century phenomenon of the enshrined Genghis Khan being worshipped as a world conqueror and an eminent national hero and the degrading of Yue Fei is something that is going to be remembered by the Chinese for centuries to come. The Mongols don’t need to be ashamed of their history but on the other hand they can take pride in it. Andrew Shrylock (1997) was the first person to usher in the concept of Genealogical Nationalism and its various political maneuvers. According to him, though China’s set p is more complex, yet he says that he finds the genealogical nationalism concept very evident in their society. According to Frank Pieke (2003) he argues that the Chinese mentality of genealogical nationalism not only crisscrosses but also transcends both complex class and regional boundaries. The Imperial Era: The Han and the Mongols: By the middle of the thirteenth century, North China, Korea and many of the Muslim kingdoms were subjugated by the Mongols. Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan became the supreme leader of the Mongols and established the Yuan dynasty to rule over China. Making use of Han bureaucrats the Mongols tried their best to make use of traditional institutions to govern China, but they could not live up to the task because they discriminated the Han both politically and socially. The Mongols monopolized the central as well as all the regional posts, preferring to employ other non- Chinese people from other parts of Mongolia, Central Asia, Europe and even the Middle – East. On the other hand, Chinese were given employment in regions that were non – Chinese. This encouraged a fair amount of cultural exchange and multiculturalism flourished. In the hope of gaining a better control and order of the Han society, the Mongols reinstated the Confucian governmental practices and examinations that had its grounding in Classics that had been forgotten during the period of unity. It was during this period that major innovations and changes took place. Art, Science and literature flourished. The Chinese key innovations were the techniques of printing and the production of thin glass and cloisonné became famous. It was also during this period that the great Venetian traveler Marco Polo made his historical trip to “Cambaluc” now better known as Beijing and astounded the Europeans in his account of the life and people of Mongolia. The Mongolians as they stand today: A sea of change has taken place in the last few centuries because of the rivalry between the Mongol Imperial heirs. In addition to this, natural disasters and peasant uprising took its toll on the Mongols and finally led to collapse of the Yuan dynasty. Soon thereafter, a Han Chinese Buddhist monk who became a rebel leader formed the Ming Dynasty in the years 1368 – 1644. The first quarter of the 15th century saw the Ming Dynasty reach its zenith and glory. The power and stability of the Ming Dynasty catering to over a 100 million spread faith and belief among the Chinese people that they had reached their pinnacle of a great civilization and they were self sufficient to the extent that they did not need nor did they welcome anything foreign. The Ming rule encountered long and expensive wars with the Mongols and together with the Japanese incursions into Korea soon wakened and made way for the Manchus in 1644 who established the last imperial dynasty called the Qing (1644 – 1911) Even though the Manchus did not belong to Han Chinese, yet they had assimilated sufficient Chinese culture to gain dominion over China. The Qing regime greatly succeeded in protecting themselves not only from internal disturbances but also from foreign invasions. But still Western traders, missionaries and other seekers of fortune posed a huge threat to China and their inability to gauge the challenge posed before them led to the fall of the Qing and this put an end to the dynastic rule in China. The Peoples Republic of China: The People’s Republic of China was founded on Ist October 1949 establishing its capital at Beijing. Declaring the “peoples democratic dictatorship" Mao proudly stated, “The Chinese people have stood up!" (Mao, 1949) China has come a very long way in history and has had many ups and downs. But sheer determination and hard work has made China what it is today. Four social classes of people were defined – the workers, the peasants, the petite bourgeoisie, and the national-capitalists. The head of government was Zhou Enlai (1898 – 1976) Peace reigned for the first time in decades with a highly skilled and disciplined leadership who realized that reconstruction, achievement and stability can only be brought about by the mutual cooperation and goodwill of all the people not considering the class to which they belonged. Impressive results led to massive support from all quarters. Today China is one of the leading nations taking an active role in every possible sphere. In fact it has made itself so indispensable and one may wonder how the world would be without a great nation like China. Mongolian Depictions: Among the existing works of contemporary art are two surviving pieces of art that depict the fierce appearance of these barbaric invaders. One of them was The Mongol warrior lies beneath the feet of Henry the Pious, killed at the battle of Leignitz, 1241. (Authors collection) (Stephen Turnbull, 2003) The tomb of Henry is now placed in the National Museum situated in Wroclaw and at the base of the feet is a tiny carving of a Mongol warrior wearing the typical Mongolian head gear. The second piece of art was not made in stone but was produced on paper in a Japanese emakimono (horizontal picture scroll painting) This scroll was designed to celebrate a victory not to decry a defeat. The painting was a leader of the Samurai called Takezaki Suenaga. This scroll was called the Moko Shurai Ekotoba otherwise known as the Mongol Invasion Scroll. References: Dr. Timothy May, The Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan 1165 – 1227, North Georgia College and State University. www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/intro.html Book: The Secret History of the Mongols. Paul Kahn & Francis Woodman Cleaves. The Origins of Chingis Khan. (C & T Asian Culture Series) Book: Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquest. (1940 – 1400) 97 pages Author: Stephen Turnbull Publisher: Routledge Publication year: 2003 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Copyright© 2004, Publisher: Columbia University Press. Book: The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy (1940) 587 pages Authors: Michael Prawdin, Eden Paul, Cedar Paul; Publisher: Macmillan The Chinese Cult of Chinggis Khan: Genealogical Nationalism. www.smhric.org/E_Bulag_2.pdf Imperial Era: III www.chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial3.html Journal on Ancient China to Modern Times The People’s Republic of China www.members.aol.com/TeacherNet/AncientChina.html Read More