The Power of the Mamluks and Il-Khanates - Essay Example

The Power of the Mamluks and Il-Khanates The Mamluks and the Il-Khanates both achieved their power through means of their religion, Islam; however, each clan had a very different base that allowed it to achieve its power. For the Mamluks, they were able to form a power base focusing on the fact that they were a military culture, and they used their well-trained soldiers to put themselves in stark contrast with the Mongols. The Mamluks were able to compete with the Mongols because of their military culture, and eventually they were able to repel the Mongols and keep their Islamic faith. Once the Mongols converted to Islam, the Mamluks, viewed as a powerful possible adversary, the Mamluks were, for the most part, left alone at this stage. The Il-Khanates, on the other hand, achieved power by giving their subordination to the main Kahn, Kublai, and the main empire, thus ensuring the support of a successful ally. Because they were originally not a Muslim culture, they were often attacked by the Islamic states surrounding them. Eventually, after the converted to Islam, they were able to solidify their faith and gain acceptance. Thus, both clans were able to earn power through their religion, although through different means. It's important to revisit the development of these two empires in order to see how their power bases were increased by their acceptance into Islam. First, it is important to revisit the original Mongol invasions. Something different happened after the Mongols had invaded a few Islamic empires; eventually, the Mongols were to become Muslim themselves. This was to play an important role in the development of Islam within the Il-Khanate. The invasions of Central Asia and Russia by the Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde did not have the negative impacts on the native Islamic faith that the Mongol invasion of Iraq and Persia both had. Even though the Mongols defeated the Islamic states, the Muslim faith did prevail, and the Mongols themselves, although the invaders, did, for the most part, convert to Islam. However, the Mongol conquering of Islam's heartland did result in some major changes for the religion. By conquering and disemboweling the current Islamic dynasties, the Mongols instilled new ones, thus setting a new era for the religion. This new era would allow both the Il-Khans and the Mamluk to achieve power through Islam, although this power would not be implemented until a little later in history. In order to understand how this process came about, it is important to revisit the history regarding the Mongol conquering of Islam. The fighting in Asia began in the 13th century with Genghis Khan, who raided Persia and conquered several cities up until his death. By 1237, the Mongols were outside of Bagdhad, the center of the Abbasid caliphate. When the Great Kahn Mongke was elected in 1251, the decision to attack the Abbasid caliphate was formed. Mongke did not like that Islamic people worshipped a man who they seemed to view as even above the Khan. Thus, the Mongols attacked the capital, and came out victorious (Nichoole 82). Then, Mongke gave instructions to attack the caliphate only if it decided not to surrender. Of course, the caliphate did not, and they were largely unprepared to do battle with fighters as whorled-renowned as the Mongols. They had a large force, but were not as well trained as the Mongols. Another problem that emerged in the Islamic faction was the age-old battle between Sunni and Shiite, and the fact that the caliphate was a Sunni meant that many Shiites went over to the Mongol side, thinking they would regain power if they did saw. Also, many Christians joined the side of the Mongols, seeing the Mongols as possible saviors from the fate of Islam. Some of the Mongol army was, in fact, Christian, so this is perhaps one of the reasons why they were able to gather so much support. Many Mongol soldiers were careful not to destroy Christian churches and symbols, and this fact endeared the army to the Christians. The Mongols probably would have been able to defeat the caliphate's army alone; however, with the addition of these other resources, their victory was almost inevitable. Thus, in 1258 came the fall of Baghdad (Nicholle 83). The Mongol invasion had several affects on Islam. First of all, the Islamic world never fully regained its power in the world. Furthermore, much of the intellect, scholarship, and culture within the Islamic world was destroyed by the Mongol invader. Furthermore, the irrigation system was also destroyed, and not rebuilt until the 20th century. The technological and intellectual setbacks were enormous. However, despite these setbacks, the invasion was not a complete loss, or a total negative within the Islamic world. The Muslims, for instance, were able to convert the Mongols into Islam, and hence gained a powerful ally. This in itself should be seen as a triumph for Islamic faith. The Mongols were absorbed so quickly into Muslim culture that about forty years after the Abbasid caliphate, the Mongols had adopted Islam as the religion of their empire. Also, another interesting factor that occurred, and that perhaps helped to strengthen the Mamluk stance in the Mongol empire, was the fact that most of the inhabitants within the empire spoke Turkish, therefore eventually absorbing the Mongol language. Turkish began to replace the Mongol language in certain region of the Il-Khanate. Azerbarjian, for example, has been a Turkish-speaking area since Mongol times. However, Turkish did not become the official language of the Il-Khanate, but it did in the Goldon Horde by 1280. Regardless, the language was still influential. The Mamluk, who were Turkish themselves, were a primary push as well for the use of the Turkish language. The Mamluk coup that brought them to power over the Ayyubids demonstrated the strength of their upstart Turkish slave soldier class. The Mamluks were professional soldiers, and would eventually present the Mongols with their most serious and continuous challenge. When Mongke died in 1260, the Mamluks decided to strike (Reagan 45). While the Mongols were distracted by the succession and the eventual splintering of the empire, the Mamluks attacked the Mongols in Syria. This was the first time in fifty years that a Muslim army had attacked the Mongols, and it was a smart move for the Mamluks, because it helped to establish their power in comparison to the Mongols. The Mamluks, through their eventual victory, were allowed to attain status and power. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols and occupied the base at Gaza. Then, months later, Mamluks launched a second attack and killed a Mongol commander, thus forcing the Mongols out of Syria completely. The Mamluks were able to attain success against the Mongols primarily because they were professional soldiers; they did not focus on much cultural or intellectual development; instead, they existed solely for military training. Another interesting point to note is that the Mamluks used the technology of horseshoes on their horses, while the Mongols did not, and the harsh terrain of Syria would often injure the horse's feet without the use of horseshoes. Furthermore, the Mamluks also knew that the grasslands were needed for Mongols to allow their horses to graze; in response to this, the Mamluks often burned the grasslands to prevent the Mongol horses from eating. The Mamluks thus used their power in order to attain respect from the Mongols. In later generations, the Mongols would come to respect them, as they did believe in Islam, and the Mongols did eventually convert. All of these factors allowed the Mamluks to enjoy status and revere in the empire, and allowed them to attain the power they so desired. Thus, their soldier status was the first door to gaining power alongside the Mongols; the second step was their Islamic faith, because after the Mongols had converted, the Mamluks would enjoy greater status and respect as fellow Muslims. The invasion of the Mamluks alongside the death of Mongke marked the end of the Mongol Empire as a united dynasty. Kublai prevailed in 1260 but regardless the empire was forever divided (Regan 94). Hulegu, Kublai's brother, joined his brother, and eventually renamed his empire the Il-Khanate as a sign of his subordination to his brother. Kublai, was of course grateful for his brother's loyalty, and as such, the Il-Khanate received several special favors and rewards from Kublai's government. Thus, the Il-Khanate's reliance on the original Khan dynasty gave it its initial power, as it had a very powerful ally in its midst. Berke, however, refused to recognize Kulai, and was one of the major reasons for the empire splintering. Berke wanted to retain his own power and control. Thus by 1263, Berke had negotiated an alliance between the Golden Horde and almost all other states surrounding Hulegu's Il-Khanate: the Mamluks in Egypt, the Byzantines in Constantinople, and even the Italian city-state of Genoa, which provided a much needed link between the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt. Because the Il-Khans had not totally evolved into a Muslim state at this point, they were at the mercy of the Islamic countries that surrounded them, and eventually this would open the door to war (Reagan 103). The Golden Horde was soon fighting a full-scale war with the Il-Khanate, which continued after the deaths of Hulegu in 1265 and Berke in 1266 (Regan 103). The fact that the Il-Khanate were not originally and essentially a Muslim state caused them many problems, as they were not initially accepted by the Muslims, and hence the wars and oppression started to occur. As a result of all of this, the Il-Khanate had to make a major decision; whether to convert to Islam, or whether to stay in limbo within the Mongol empire. Because of their ties to the Mongol empire, the Il-Khanate should have felt that they were in a stronger position to fight. However, they did not, and part of this reason may also be attributed to the fact that the Mamluks were such powerful soldiers and had the ability to defeat the Mongols. The Il-Khanate empire was one of the four major parts located within the Mongol Empire. Its location was found in Persia, or present-day Iran, and also encompassed Iraq, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan and part of Pakistan. It formed its basis with Genghis Khan's growing empire and continue to grow under Chormagan, Baiju, and Eljigidei. The original creator of the dynasty was Hulegu Khan, who was Genghis Khan's grandson and Kublai Khan's brother. Hulegu hoped to take the Muslim kingdoms far beyond Egypt, but while he was campaigning, one of the khans, Mongke, died, and this caused many of the Mongol army to withdraw, thus resulting in a terrible defeat at the Battle of Ain Jalut (Sickler 91). Kublai Khan thus acceded to power after the return of Hulegu, and the leadership role passed through this family, implementing the true start of the Il-Khans. For the next eighty years, this family ruled Persia and eventually converted to Islam. The Il-khans were almost always fighting with the Mamluks, but were never able to overcome them and later, they were forced by the Mamluks to give up their control over Syria, and their control over the Sultanate of Rum and the kingdom of Armenian Cilcia (Sickler 92). The Mamluks thus, just as they had not been able to be defeated by the Mongols, were certainly not able to be defeated by the Il-Khanate. This presented a problem, because even the Il-Khanates powerful ally could not assist them against the Mamluks. Many of the khanates were hostile toward the Il-Khans, including the Caucasus and Transoxiana, and this prevented any westward expansion for the Il-Khans, who were constantly at war with these tribes. When the Il-Khans finally converted to Islam, the fighting ceased, and the Il-Khans were able to strengthen their empire and make friends and allies of the neighboring Islam states. Thus, this fact demonstrates how the conversion to Islam allowed the Il-Khans to gain power in their empire, as the end to war allowed them to gain more strength and power. The early culture of the Il-Khans was constantly under question regarding the nature of religion, and this continued doubt continued even after they converted to Islam. Originally, the conversion to Islam was adopted by the culture and seen as a way to perhaps further expand and establish the Il-Khans own culture, which was still under development. However, the Il-Khans were never totally Muslim, and this created some cultural misunderstandings. These misunderstandings, occurring at the same time as the harsh emperors after Hulegu, and many people felt the oppression of the emperor's dictatorial-like regime. This repression caused a rejection of the emperor's religion, and many people converted to Tibetan Buddhism and Nestorianism. The religious question did not stop there, though. Ghazan, a later emporer, converted to Islam, and this caused Islam to rise again in the empire. The rise of Islam once again caused many of the Buddhist and Christian converts to be harassed, and mistreated. The Buddhism in the empire died with Arghun, and the culture re-converted into an Islam state. Thus, the cultural question within the empire was answered with Arghun's death, and the conversion of the empire back to Islam. Eventually, though, after the Il-Khans had converted to Islam, the problems with the allies against them eventually ceased. Therefore, the Il-Khanate resolved their cultural struggle by converting totally into an Islamic state, and being accepted by their neighbors. Therefore, they were able to solve their cultural problems and expand their empire. This did not stop the internal problems in the empire, though. Gaykhatu attempted to produce paper money from China into Islam. As a result, Islamic merchants did not want to accept the money, and trade nearly stopped. The imposition of the new money was a total disaster and had to be abandoned, and eventually a rebellion took Gaykhatu out of power. Ghazan was the first Muslim of Mongol descent to rule the Il-Khanate, and as a result, the Muslim religion rose to full force again. Ghazan was a Sunni, but he encouraged toleration of Shiite tradition, and eventually Ghazan removed the Buddhist temples and converted them into mosques. He also told the Buddhists they could accept Islam or return to India, Tibet, or China. Christians were persecuted, and the presentation and acceptance of the Islamic fate was again pushed. By 1304, the Il-Khanate were an entirely Muslim culture, and their cultural faith and understanding had been established, as well as accepted, by the neighboring Islam states (Sickler 104). Unfortunately, this acceptance may have very well been the undoing of the Il-Khanate. Once Ghazan died, the entire empire fell apart, mainly because not all Muslims were as open-minded as he had been. Ghazan's toleration of both sects was a rarity, and his death would end the acceptance of both Sunni and Shi'ite faiths in the realm. His brother, Oljeitu, was a Shiite, and did not accept the Sunni concepts. He persecuted them, and this attitude hurt the Il-Khanate's relationship with the Mamluks, who were Sunnis. War was almost imminent by the time Oljeitu died in 1316, and his son and heir made peace with the Mamluks, and restored Sunni traditions. Abu Said, the new king, however, found himself in conflict with the Golden Horde, who battled with him over territory in the Caucasus Mountains. This battle would lead to the eventual decline and collapse of this empire. The Golden Horde was not able to fully conquer the Il-Khanate, although it did weakened the empire enough to add plenty of political turmoil. The political turmoil continued and eventually allowed the Il-Khanate to be encompassed by Timur's rapidly expanding empire. Thus, it could be perhaps said that what gave the Il-Khanate strength; its connection to the Mongol empire and its conversion to Islam, was also its ultimate undoing. First, the Il-Khanate's connection to the Mongol empire could not save the empire from the powerful Mamluk soldiers, who were able to not only defeat the Il-Khanate army on numerous occasions; they were also able to conquer the Mongols, who were the Il-Khanate's allies. Furthermore, the conversion to Islam, which could have initially saved the empire from the neighboring hostile Islamaic nations, led to the empire's fractioning during the rule of Oljeitu, who refused to accept the Sunnis as equals. This again almost led to war with the Mamluks, which would have been disastrous for the Il-Khanate. Regardless of the fact that the war was prevented, the empire still was never able to recover from this fractioning, and thus fell apart. The Mamluks thus emerge as perhaps one of the most powerful clans in the area during this time period. Their focus on the military certainly gave them the strength necessary to defeat some powerful foes, including the most powerful conquerors of the time, the Mongols. In fact, the Mamluks were so powerful that they were actually the first Islamic sect to take on the Mongols in fifty years, and then achieve two victories against the Mongols. Their Islamic faith, once accepted by the Mongols, further helped to establish their power as a group, and allowed them again to take control over their prominent areas, as well as influencing others. Furthermore, their acceptance of Islam and participation with the other Islamic countries more than likely led to the conversion of the Il-Khanates into Islam. Surrounded by Islamic states, the Il-Khanate needed to prevent the hostility they were experiencing from their Islamic neighbors and therefore eventually converted. This allowed them to gain power and respect within the area, and allowed their country to grow and proper. Also, their connection to the Mongol empire helped to strengthen their influence in the eastern world. Regardless, their power would not extend as far nor last as long as the Mamluks, who possessed the necessary military makeup for the time period, and thus were extremely successful soldiers and invaders. Regardless, during this time period, both cultures were highly successful and powerful forces within the world, and played a large part in the growth of the Islamic faith. Their importance thus in Islamic history cannot be missed, and they helped to mark a new era and tradition of Islamic faith after the Mongols had conquered the Islamic world. Works Cited Nicolle, David. The Mongol Warlords. New Jersey: Brockhampton Press, 1998. Reagan, Geoffrey. The Guiness Book of Decisive Battles. New York: Canopy Books, 1992. Sickler, Martin. The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. New Jersey: Praeger Publishers, 2000. Read More