Nature of International Migration - Essay Example

Summary Ch Chapter one begins by considering the nature of international migration. The chapter immediately makes the argument that international migration can’t simply be reduced to a singular explanation, but is rather the product of multiple factors. Instead, the research indicates that migration should be understood as a collective action that occurs within the context of an array of social factors. The chapter goes on to indicate that research on migration has traditionally been divided into two subject categories: the first category considers reasons for migratory movements; the second category investigates the ways that immigrants are received by the societies they move to. The chapter, however, argues that these traditional distinctions do not properly investigate international migration. Instead, the chapter indicates that international migration should be investigated comprehensively, involving the impact that the migratory patterns have on both the host country and the country the person came from. The chapter then goes on to examine economic theories of migration. The first theory examined is the neoclassical theory. The text argues that neoclassical theory positions migration as occurring because of push and pull factors. Namely, economic conditions push some people out of their regional areas and pull them to different geographical areas. A notable aspect of this theory is that it assumes that people maximize all available opportunities presented to them. One considers that this may be an overly idealistic portrayal of the motivation behind international migration movements. Another theory examined is dual labor market theory. This theory expands some of the neoclassical elements by including the importance of race and gender in motivating migration. The third approach is the new economics of labor migration model. This perspective argues that rather than rooting migration behavior in a single individual, migration must be examined in terms of larger social units; specifically, these social units involve families, households, and communities. These varying theories of migration are recognized as significant because they influence a variety of policy decisions that are regarding immigration. Adding to this complexity is the recognition that these varying economic theories may operate at identifying different levels of immigration. This complexity leads the chapter to consider that rather than imagining a singular type of migration, it may be more productive to consider a large array of migrations. As a means to further examine these complexities the chapter references the historical-structural approach and world systems theory. The historical-structural approach situates international migration not in terms of the individual’s neoclassic maximization of profit efficiency, but rather in broad shifts of labor that was motivated out of corporate or government interests. In these regards, large pools of immigrants would shift from one area to another following corporate outsourcing or the similar development of economic structures. The earlier mentioned approaches largely constituted foundational elements that would lead to the development of migration systems theory. Migration systems theory, as the chapter indicates, begins by linking migration as people moving between countries. After establishing this factor, the chapter indicates that migration systems theory argues that migratory patterns can primarily be analyzed in terms of past links between these countries. For instance, geography, political connections, or similar elements, all contribute to increasing or decreasing migration. For instance, the chapter indicates that Korean and Vietnamese migration to the United States occurred as a result of past American involvement in the territory. The chapter further indicates that any migratory system can be understood in terms of both macro and micro factors. In this matrix, macro factors are large-scale institutional influences most prominently from government entities. Conversely, micro-factors are informal social networks that are established by the migrants as a means of facilitating migration. One would consider the development of Chinatowns in the United States as such a social network that facilitates Asian migration. Additionally, the chapter refers to processes of cumulative causation and meso-structures as explaining aspects of migratory movement. Ch. 3 Chapter three begins by considering the extent that immigration helps or hinders the countries of origin. One of the major considerations in these regards is the South-North migration debate. In this context of investigation the text examines migratory movements between European states and southern areas such as Africa. The text indicates that by 2006 out of a significant total of migratory movements, nearly 6 million had occurred from south to south. Another 50 million had occurred between north and north regions. The studies that occurred during this period examined the effects of development on migration, as well as the impact of migration on development. The chapter next considers the emergence of globalization in the 1970s. Globalization occurred as international markets increasingly opened up to free trade. During this period the expansive multinational corporations emerged that further perpetuated the movement of individuals from one region to another. While globalization can be heralded as a movement wherein markets opened to outside corporations, it subsequently resulted in an interconnectedness that further facilitated international migration movements. The chapter specifically refers to cross-border flows, and transnational networks, both of which facilitated this interconnectedness. Added to this was the development of new technologies which would facilitate these movements. In Europe, for instance, there was high speed rail. Globally the increasing affordability of airfare allowed for greater levels of international migration. The text considers the various ways that multinational corporations contribute to this migration. Globalization is then contextualized in terms of broader ranging notions of historical change. The text references theorists who argue that globalization is not a fundamental world change, but rather the latest stage of capitalism. The chapter considers the ways that globalization, economics, and migratory patterns are interconnected. The chapter next explores the notion of economic remittance. Economic remittance refers to money that is sent home to the country the immigrant left. The chapter indicates that nearly eight percent of the world’s population receives economic remittance. The top three countries receiving economic remittance are China, India, and Mexico. There is the recognition that high amounts of remittance speak to the important influence economics has in international migration. The chapter next considers the notion of social remittance. Social remittance refers to the transfer of attitudes and cultural beliefs back to the country of origin. In terms of specifics, the country indicates that elements such as education and trade skills are often passed through social remittance. The text then considers the notion of circular migration. Circular migration refers to the process of temporary migration, where individuals will migrate to and from their country of origin. In many ways such processes of migration occur as a result of specific government policies. For instance, some countries have introduced temporary and seasonal migratory programs. Germany implemented the new guestworker program which encourages such forms of temporary migration. Ch. 4 Chapter four begins by investigating migration movements that occurred before 1945. One of the earliest such historical considerations is the prevalence of migration that occurred in Western Europe after 1650. While the chapter recognizes migration has been a prominent historical occurrence, it argues that migration wasn’t always given proper scholarly attention. The chapter goes on to consider a number of antecedents to modern migration. One such consideration is chattel slavery. Chattel slavery refers to the process of slavery that occurred in the New World, where significant individuals were forcefully transported abroad against their will. Another significant pre-1945 migration event was indentured servitude. This was the process where individuals from Western Europe and even Asia would agreement to migrate to a region on the condition that they would work to pay their expenses on arrival; throughout the nineteenth century millions of individuals migrated through indentured servitude. The chapter next considers migration to North American and Oceania before 1914. The chapter indicates that the wealth that Western Europe gained through colonial expansion helped fuel the industrial revolution. The increase of industrial production, particularly in North America, resulted in increased migration movements. For instance, the early 19th century marked the peak period for British migration to the United States. The chapter further recognizes that British colonial expansion resulted in migration of British subjects throughout the globe, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. Additionally, the chapter considers that many Americans who remained loyal to Great Britain migrated to Canada after the American Revolution. The chapter next examines later migration within Europe. In large part there is the recognition that these migratory movements were the result of the Industrial Revolution. In this way, the chapter indicates that the first 19th century migration patterns within Europe occurred within and from Britain. Migration then moved to other areas within Europe. For instance, the chapter indicates the immigration to Germany greatly contributed to industrialization in the region. The chapter argues that these migration movements within Europe largely contributed to economic expansion in the destination regions. The chapter next examines the interwar period. The interwar period refers to the period between World War I and World War II. One of the central considerations in these regards is that following World War I many migrants returned home. When they returned home, however, they discovered that many of the economic outlets that were once available were now gone. Subsequently, new immigration occurred based on the new need to gain employment. France was a major outlet for such immigration as many foreign workers entered the country. During the 1930s, with the Great Depression, many foreigners experienced enmity of native workers as there was increased competition for jobs. While France and the United States was an outlet for immigration during this period, Germany notably had no need of foreign immigration. Rather, the Weimar Republic was experiencing a period of crisis. Ch. 5 Chapter five considers migration to Europe, Oceania and North America after the 1945 period. Of course, post-1945 immigration is significant as it occurs after the Second World War. The chapter further divides immigration into significant categories during this period. Specifically, 1945-1970 is recognized as one significant period of immigration. This period is then further divided into migration of workers from the European periphery to Western Europe, migration of colonial workers to colonial areas, and then permanent migration to North American and Oceania. One prominent consideration in this area of investigation is the recognition that all major nations during this period recruited forms of temporary labor. In this way, the developed European powers were able to take advantage of the cheap labor that existed in the European periphery. The chapter considers the various countries that participated in these recruitment efforts. During this period, countries such as France, Belgium, and Switzerland all established offices and outreach efforts as a means of recruiting foreign labor. As noted, another major form of immigration during this period was migration from former colonies. Both Britain and France experienced significant inflow from former their former colonies. The third form of migration was migration to North American and Oceania. Large-scale immigration to the United States is recognized as occurring at a later period than in Europe because the United States enacted restrictive legislation. When immigration did occur it was at a lower rate than in the early part of the century. Finally, Australia implemented a mass immigration movement following 1945 because it believed this would bolster the country’s economic infrastructure. Chapter five next considers comparative perspectives. The chapter indicates that while a wide array of countries and motivations for immigration existed, one of the central themes was that immigration occurred during this period because of economic reasons. The chapter considers the general importance of immigration during this period. In this way, it indicates that immigration was significant for many countries as it allowed for the current workforce to assume higher level positions; this immigration then resulted in increased economic expansion. Another significant theme during this period was that migration occurred from increasingly new regions. While immigration was in the past restricted to established Western power, increasingly immigrants came from diverse regions. Chapter five next considers the second major type of immigration. This period of immigration is recognized as occurring from 1974-1985. In Europe during this period recruitment of foreign labor and immigration from past colonial territories ceased. In this way, the period became recognized as a time of consolidation in Europe. This period was marked by Germany in 1973 stopping recruitment practices. The countries during this period oftentimes declared themselves ‘zero immigration’. Many countries hoped that the foreign workers they once recruited would simply leave. While mass immigration movements during this period were reduced the general makeup of some countries was altered. For instance, the chapter indicates that the population of women in Germany increased during this period. There were additionally changes brought on by political forms. One recognizes the text’s earlier exploration of a variety of immigration theories as significantly emerging through the pre and post 1973 shift. While neoclassical interpretations may have held more validity prior to 1973, post 1973 shifts necessitate more comprehensive and systematic theoretical analysis. The chapter then considers migration trends of the new millennium. The chapter indicates that in the mid-1990s migration rates steadied because of restrictive policies, and economic and political stability. At the beginning of the new millennium, however, the chapter indicates that migration greatly increased. One major reason for the increase of migration during this period was the establishment of the European Union. The European Union formed an interconnected network of countries that eased the path of immigration for many individuals. Family reunion was another significant reason for immigration during this period. The chapter next considers immigration trends in Southern Europe. The text argues that while previously these regions had been associated with emigration, during the post-Cold War period they increasingly became destinations of immigration. This change would significantly alter their composition. For instance, the chapter indicates that Italy during this experienced witnessed a 100% increase in immigrants with workers permits. This period in Southern Europe also witnessed considerably rises in illegal immigration. In most instances, immigrants would arrive illegally or violate visa permits and then later become legalized. While immigration to Southern Europe during this period occurred from a variety of countries, the most prominent starting locations were Eastern Europe, Brazil, and Africa. In addition to Italy, Greece was another significant destination for immigration. While immigration is past decades was largely viewed as contributing to economic expansion, immigration during this period is largely characterized as a detriment to economic prosperity. In this way, the chapter argues that illegal immigration contributed to increased unemployment and socioeconomic hardships. For the first time during this period, countries such as Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic became destinations for immigrants. One of the challenges of examining immigration into these regions, the chapter argues, is that poor statistics were kept as the countries were inexperienced in such immigration flows. The Soviet Union witnessed considerable internal immigration during this period. The chapter next considers Europe’s changing population. In these regards, the chapter considers the various ways that Europe’s population changed because of immigration. Ch. 7 Chapter seven examines migration patterns in sub-saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Latin America. The chapter begins by indicating that Africans are a global race, as all individuals can trace their ancestry to Africa. In this way, Africa represents the original country of migration. The chapter explores colonial roots of migration within Africa. In this way the chapter recognizes that the country’s political divisions greatly contributed and shaped migratory movements. In many instances, there were very porous borders between states, greatly contributing the migration movements. The intrusion of European colonial powers is further recognized as contributing or restricting migration within the continent. Colonial influence, the chapter suggests, was primarily concerned with restricting migration as a means of controlling economic factors. The chapter next considers the nature of forced migration within Africa. Forced migration refers to the process where Africans must migrate to escape war or genocide. Another important consideration within Africa is economic migration; largely economic migration occurs in conjunction with forced migration, as wars correspondingly result in economic hardship. The text next considers African migration to Europe and other regions. The text largely links African migration, in this context, to globalization. These migration patterns share many similar features with earlier mentioned patterns, notably economic remittances. The chapter next considers migration in the Middle East and North Africa. The chapter considers this area as a singular unit. The chapter argues that the diverse cultural and ethnic makeup of this region is such that it results in significant migration movements. In addition to the deserts which encourage a nomadic life, there are a variety of holy areas that encourage pilgrimages. The chapter considers the notion of settlement immigration. Settlement immigration is the process where entire settlements of people are established or moved. One considers Israel as perhaps the most prominent example of this, but the chapter indicates that this has occurred in an array of contexts. Again, the text indicates that many of the major issues that exist in south Africa also exist in these region. Namely, forced migration is a major concern because of wars and political conflicts. The chapter next considers Latin America and the Caribbean. In this context of investigation, the chapter indicates that the regions south of the United States can be divided into four main categories. The chapter indicates that following the Cold War, migration in these regions has been characterized by efforts to expand integration efforts and groups. Similar to the politically tumultuous Middle East region, Latin America experienced a significant amount of forced migration as a result of regime changes. The chapter specifically considers such instances in the context of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. While the chapter indicates that political instability greatly contributed to migration, it indicates that even more substantial were economic factors. Perhaps contributed to by the unstable political situations, economic woes in Latin America greatly contributed to emigration. Another significant consideration is the nature of remittance. The chapter indicates that economic remittance from immigrants living in the United States totaled near $600 million. These substantial figures have contributed to the rise of illegal immigration and the ensuing challenges associated with it. Ch. 8 Chapter eight considers the state and international migration. Specifically, the relation between state and international migration is one of control. Of course, this refers to late 20th and early 21st century migration, as earlier in the century many state governments actually encourage migration. The chapter considers the nature of legalization programs. Legalization programs are those that allow illegal immigrants who gained employment in a country a means of gaining legal citizenship. While the hope was that through implementing legalization programs the state could better control immigration movements, what occurred more often was increased illegal immigration. In this way, particularly in France, the policies were ineffective in allowing the state to gain greater control over immigration practices. Still, many legalization programs have been implemented. In the United States, for instance, a legalization program was established that would grant citizenship if illegal aliens were able to meet a certain number of criteria. Other perspectives on legalization recognize that many of the undocumented workers are not paying taxes and the legalization process allows the government to efficiently manage its population. In either instance, it’s clear there are conflicting perspectives on the efficacy of these programs. The chapter next considers temporary foreign worker admission programs. The chapter indicates that these programs reemerged during the post-Cold War period. In the United States, for instance, these temporary programs were heralded as potentially being a solution to the country’s significant illegal immigrant problem. The chapter next considers refugees and asylum. In terms of refugee the chapter indicates this is an individual that has sought safety in a new country because they fear religious or ethnic persecution. Asylum seekers are similarly individuals who have crossed international borders in search of protection. The chapter indicates that between 1975 and 2000 there were nearly 2 million such individuals residing in the United States. The chapter next considers the European Union’s government structure. In this way the chapter indicates that the EU was a mission to develop a structure that would supersede local sovereign rule. This mission was further motivated out of a desire to limit warfare between European states. The chapter next considers forced migration in the region. Specifically, the chapter focuses on forced migration as occurring through human smuggling and trafficking. The chapter indicates that it is difficult to precisely determine the amount of people impacted by human smuggling and trafficking because of the clandestine nature of these operations. Still, it places the figures in the millions and recognizes that it is a serious issue. Ch. 9 Chapter nine considers migration and security. The chapter opens by recognizing the significant attention that the 9/11 terrorist attacks brought to the issue. In this way, one recognizes that the hijackers that participated in the terrorist attacks were able to gain domiciles within the United States. The chapter contextualizes this contemporary fear of migration with fears of migration in past centuries. For instance, the indigenous population in the New World was destroyed by European immigration. These forms of negative migration are contrasted with the brief period between 1945-1970 when global migration was viewed as beneficial to economic expansion. Contemporary migration, as embodied by the aforementioned security concerns, is closely related to international relations. While past forms of migration were examined in terms of economics or domestic politics, international relations emerged during this period because of the sensitive nature of potential terrorists. The chapter also considers that some forms of international migration are dangerous as they can lead to the consolidation of criminal groups in the region. The chapter goes on to consider the nature of Muslim migration and growing Western concerns about these practices. Specifically, the chapter indicates explores the various instances where Arab attacks occurred within the United States. For instance, the World Trade Center attacks were perpetrated by Muslim organizations. The chapter considers the divergent demographics of Muslims living in North America against those living in Europe. The chapter indicates that Muslims living in North America are generally more prosperous and educated than those living in Europe. Even as Muslims are viewed as a threat to Western interests the chapter considers the ways that these groups may be unfairly characterized. In these regards, rather than considering that all Muslims should be typecast, it indicates countries should be wary of violence prone groups. The chapter then considers the nature of migration security. In this way it indicates that the United States has been involved in target Al-Qaida threats in a multiple number of ways. Ultimately, the chapter concludes by considering the importance of large powers being aware of and sympathetic to human suffering. Read More