Ethnic Conflict: Ethnic Groups, Causes of Conflict and Violence - Coursework Example

ETHNIC CONFLICT 1. INTRODUCTION Ethnic conflict seems to be very difficult to understand not only because it is unimaginable to kill people, but forcing them out of their homes just because they are a member of a different ethnic group. The causes of conflict between rivalling ethnic groups vary in many ways and requires a good explanation why some factors are causing often violent conflicts to erupt and harder to resolve. The following section critically discusses the most common causes of ethnic conflict and aspects of migration using two empirical examples. The selected examples to discuss are the conflicts between the Serbians and Albanians in Kosovo and the multi-ethnic struggle in Myanmar. 2. ETHNIC CONFLICT 2.1 Ethnic Groups, Causes of Conflict and Violence The early 1990s have witnessed a wave of ethnic conflict sweeps across parts of Eastern Europe, the formers Soviet Union, and Africa. Localities, states, and sometimes whole regions have been engulfed in convulsive fits of ethnic insecurity and violence (Lake & Rothchild 1998, p.3). This is a kind of nationalism and ethnicity that confront bigger structures and identities for the sake of individual loyalties (Holton 1998, p.5). The 1990s also witnessed the unprecedented atrocities committed in ethnic conflicts like the genocide in Rwanda, the siege of Sarajevo, the massacres of Srebrenic and Racak, and the endless treks of refugees from Kosovo generates images not seen in the western media for decades (Wolff 2006, p.10). An ethnic group or community is “a named human population with a myth of common ancestry, shared memories, cultural elements that is linked with historic territory or homeland, and a measure of solidarity” (Anthony Smith in Brown 1993, p.4). The causes of ethnic conflict however vary in different literature. Some authors believed that the causes of conflicts are rooted in unsatisfied human needs (Ronen & Pelinka 1997, p.134). Ross (2007, p.18) on the other hand argues that cultures and cultural diversities are not the causes of conflict but economic and political differences. A type of ethnic conflict arising from the need to control scarce resources such as land that is very common in some parts of Africa (Danieli 1998, p.375). In contrast, ethnic conflict according to Winmer (2004, p.319) comes from irrational, non-resolvable causes rooted in century-old history or ancient ethnic, racial, and religious hatred. In other words, ethnic security problems intensified by historical animosities and often exaggerated memories of past injustices by the other (Crocker et al. 2007, p.27). The reason perhaps for the varying opinion on the root causes of ethnic conflict may be explained Thompson et al (2005, p.2) argument that each ethnic conflict has its own distinct and unique cause and dynamics. In addition, conflict between ethnic groups may have start with ethnic dimension but turned into a religious conflict along the way. Wolff (2006, p.3) also argues that although many ethnic groups have historical grievances against each other, some groups have maintained their resentment and have not resulted to violence. This occurrence, he added, suggest that there are underlying factors or permissive conditions that make some conflict or situation more prone to aggression than others which can be either structural, political, economic, communal, cultural, and perceptual factors. According to Brown (1993, p.6), ethnic conflict can be explained in different ways. The first explanation is focus on the nature of the security systems in which ethnic groups operate and the security concerns of these groups. The second is focus on nationalism where one group is viewed as a threat by others. The third and last is focus on the false histories that many ethnic groups have of themselves and others. In other words, ethnic conflict can be viewed as a dispute being triggered by various factors such as political, economic, cultural, social, and territorial issues between neighbouring communities. The protracted struggle between Han and Hui in China is one good example of an ethic conflict caused by economic and political interest (Lipman & Harrel 1990, p.4). Similarly, ethnic unrest caused by social change are demonstrated by the atrocities in the Balkan states, Bulgaria, Russia, Romania, and else in the former Soviet Union. The conflict in Kalimantan, Maluku, and Sulawesi involves various groups of society bordered by ethnic or religious lines (Thompson 2005, p.4). 2.2 The Serbian and Albanian Ethnic Conflict – Ethnic Cleansing and Forced Emigration The conflict in Kosovo was all about the Serbian minority of the population against the ethnic Albanians. The Serbs consider Kosovo as a cradle of their statehood and have a deep emotional attachment to it (Lukic & Lynch 1996, p.144). The Serbs in Kosovo thinks they were victims of Albanian nationalist whose policy is the creation of an ethnically pure Kosovo which they allegedly see as a necessary precondition for secession. According to the Serbs, the Albanians were intimidating them relentlessly that they have to sell their properties to get away. In 1994, the Serbs admitted the primacy of the political and territorial dimensions of the conflict (Lukic & Lynch 1996, p.145) but others see it as a cultural differences that is mostly linked to religion (Duijzings 2000, p.8). However, for D’Souza (2007, p.209), the source of tensions in the Balkans is not religion but ethnic rivalry as the racist nationalism and territorial aggrandizement are the main motivations for the violence. The Balkans has a troubled history and enduring legacy of hostility and mistrust between various ethnic and religious communities (Haggett 2001, p.1760). The Kosovo Albanians according to Fowkes (2002, p.54) were an ethnic group rather than a nation and they believed that the land was rightly theirs. In 1913, the Albanians tried to revolt but were cruelly suppressed and pushed most of them to Turkey. During World War I, part of Kosovo was occupied by Austria-Hungary as the Serbian army was defeated and the life of Kosovo Albanians briefly improved temporarily. However, at the end of the war, the Serbs took revenge and attempted to convert the area into Serb territory by Serb immigration and forced Albanian emigration. Since then, confiscations of properties and police harassment of Albanians become a way of life and significant amount of emigration from Kosovo by Albanians and other Muslims reached to an estimated 240,000 people during that time. However, the forced emigration did not affect the Albanian population in Kosovo and by 1921; they were still the majority group at 63% based on the Yugoslav census (Fowkes 2002, p.55). The “Albanian minority was a local majority” (Klemencic & Zagar 2004, p.218) in Kosovo and census after World War II shows that forced, semi-forced, semi-voluntary migrations and emigrations substantially changed the ethic structure of some regions in Yugoslavia. The reduction of the ethnic Serbs population however was generally due to the continued population growth rate of the Albanians and the continuous emigration of Serbs to other parts of Yugoslavia (Amstutz 2005, p.23). The conflict in the Balkans peninsula involving the Serbs, Slovenes, Croats, Bosnians, and Albanians, hold the dishonourable distinction of introducing the notion of ethnic cleansing to the world (Hones 2002, p.127). Since then, ethnic cleansing has become a popular term for ethically inspired crimes from murder, rape, and torture to forceful removal of population (Carmichael 2002, p.2). The Serbians was being blamed for the war in Croatia as their envy, hatred, and resentment towards the Croats were responsible for their decision to invade (MacDonald 2002, p.208). On the other hand, the assertiveness of the Albanians woke-up the deep-seated emotional Serbian aspiration of a greater Serbian control over the region but unfortunately, due to the high birth rate of Kosovo Albanians, the Serbs were pushed into a demographic minority, to the extent that many of them believed that they had no future in the region they emigrated (McGarry & O’Leary 1993, p.193). To counter the growing Albanian claim of self-rule and to satisfy Serbs desire for direct control over the economic, cultural, and political life of Kosovo, Slobodan Milosevic revoked the Kosovo’s political autonomy in 1988. Consequently, instead of reducing ethnic tensions, the re-imposition of the Serb rule greatly intensified Albanian nationalism and demands for independence (Amstutz 2005, p.23). 2.3 The Myanmar Multi-Ethnic Conflict – Violence, Migration, and Persistent State of Strife Since gaining independence from the British in 1948, Burma, now Myanmar, issues of national identity in a multi-ethnic and multi-religious setting country has become a disheartening task for leaders in fashioning a modern democratic country. According to Thompson et al (2005, p.65), the task of building a nation is made more difficult by almost 50 years of strife brought about by ethnic rebellions and grievances against majority rule. The Shans, Karens, and other minorities in Myanmar are dominated by ethnic Burmese or Indonesian outer-island minorities bound in a Java-centric state (Weatherbee & Emmers 2005, p.139). The long ethnic conflicts have forced about 5% of Burmese to emigrate somewhere else and some even become refugees in neighbouring China, Bangladesh, and Thailand (Levinson 1998, p.260). Ethnic insurgencies have remained widespread and during different eras, the objectives of stronger ethnic groups have ranged from separatism to seeking federal systems of government. Although none of them have ever achieved their political goals or addressed their grievances, these groups continue their struggle. According to Tan (2007, p.293), even today, there are still 30 different ethnic forces in control of their own territories and arms. This persistent state of strife he added comes from different historical factors such as the ethnographic complexity of the country and the politicisation of ethnic differences that was further increased by the bloodshed and destruction when Burma became a major theatre of international combat during the World War II. Moreover, the ethnic conflict in Southeast Asia, Leonard (2006, p.618) explain is inseparable from conflicts about religion, resources, and rights since one would seldom find a purely ethnic without one of these elements. For instance, the Karen ethnic community in Myanmar was introduced to Christianity centuries ago and this new religious identity has led to a bloody civil war (Larsson 2004, p.51). The seemingly endless armed ethnic conflict in Myanmar for nearly a decade had resulted to poverty and death. For instance, villagers had been the victims of predatory armed groups whose primary support is smuggling of opium, timber, cattle, theft, and illicit taxation from villages in affected zones (Taylor 2009, p.433). Life across much of rural Myanmar has been severely affected by these armed ethnic conflicts and many ethnic minorities suffered repeated displacements or forced migration as a direct result of fighting and severe human rights abuse (Skidmore & Wilson 2007, p.59). A study of Rohingya women refugees found in neighbouring Bangladesh suggest that mass rape of adolescent girls in Myanmar triggered the 1991 exodus (Behera 2006, p.210). The migrants from Myanmar that had entered Thailand in 1988 were products of government suppression and persistent ethno-nationalist strife (Estanislao & Soesastro 2001, p.153). According to Hlaing (2007, p.247), the ethic conflict in Myanmar has become somewhat international in the sense that its internal conflict expanded to neighbouring countries through displaced people, refugees, illegal migration, and external employment. Scholenhardt (2003, p.29) also explains that persecution is a common reason for refugee movements particularly those that based on race, colour, descent, and ethnic origin. For a long time, the Myanmar government policies are discriminating Muslims and ethnic minorities such as the Karens, Shans, and Mons causing thousands to migrate to neighbouring countries. 3. CONCLUSION Ethnic conflicts occurred in almost all parts of the world, in Europe, Soviet Union, Africa, and Asia. In the 1990s, unimaginable atrocities were witnessed in Rwanda, Sarajevo, Kosovo, and in many parts of the world. The cause of ethnic conflict varies in many literatures but the most common caused are territorial claims, political autonomy, economic, and deep-seated hatred to other ethnic group. In other words, the cause of ethic conflict is generally rooted on unsatisfied needs and hatred caused by memories of past injustices by a neighbouring group. The Kosovo ethnic conflict demonstrated how a territorial claim, religion, and political differences can create a deadly ethnic rivalry. The Serbs dreamed of territorial control over a land, which Albanians considered historically theirs. The conflict between the Serbs and Albanians has resulted to ethnically inspired crimes, murder, rape, torture, and annihilation through ethnic cleansing. Similarly, Myanmar’s various ethnic groups were after political, economic, religion, and rights. The ethic conflicts in Myanmar and Kosovo resulted in poverty, death, displacement, force migrations, and more strife. 4. REFERENCE LIST AMSTUTZ M. 2005. International Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Cases in Global Politics. Rowman & Littlefield, US BEHERA N. 2006. Gender, Conflict and Migration Volume 3 of Women and Migration in Asia. SAGE, India BROWN M. 1993. Ethnic Conflict and International Security. Princeton University Press, UK CARMICHAEL C. 2002. Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition. Routledge, UK CROCKET A. et al. 2007. Leashing the Dogs of War: Conflict Management in a Divided World. US Institute of Peace Press, US DANIELLI Y. 1998. International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma. Springer, US DUIJZINGS G. 2000. Religion and the Politics of Identity in Kosovo. C. Hurst & Co. 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