Racial and Gender Discrimination and Sterilization - Essay Example

 Is there Evidence that Shows Racial and Gender Discrimination in Forced Human Sterilization in California and the United States since the 1900s? Human sterilization is “a medical or surgical intervention which is performed on the patient either to a man or woman with the purpose of temporarily or permanently incapacitating the person organically or functionally”. (Ciabal 104, 191). In general, human sterilization is classified as either therapeutic or direct such that therapeutic sterilization is performed on a patient for the promotion of health and survival of the person. This is contrasted against direct sterilization which is typically performed to permanently prevent procreation between a man and a woman (Ciabal 104–105). Eugenic sterilization is the process of performing forceful human sterilization on individuals who have been diagnosed with mental diseases or insanity such as schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, feeblemindedness, or epilepsy (Myerson, Ayer and Putnam 82–136). The main purpose of performing eugenic sterilization is to prevent the increase in population of those individuals who have defective genes that can be inherited by their future children and who do not possess the self-control necessary to ensure children are not conceived. As an effective prevention method for unwanted pregnancies, the preservation of social standing of people who belong to upper- and middle-class families, and a permanent control over the rapid family growth of people in the lower-class societies (Revenel), men and women in the United States have been either given the option or forced to participate in one of two procedures – either tubal ligation (the cutting of fallopian tubes in women) or vasectomy (the cutting of vas deferens in men) since the 1900s (Myerson, Ayer and Putnam; Revenel). At the same time, it has been commonly reported that most African Americans experience racism and prejudice when it comes to receiving helath care services throughout the United States (Benkert and Peters; Gamble; Krieger and Fee). To prove that gender and racial discrimination in forced human sterilization has existed since the early 1900s, a literature review will be gathered to examine the medical practices that took place in California and the United States during this time period. Based on the gathered evidence, it is expected to be discovered whether the controversy behind the issue of gender and racial discrimination in forced human steriliazation still exists in the United States today. California Sterilization law was imposed between the years 1909 to 1979 throughout the state of California (Matocq; Stern). Even though the sterilization laws did not literally mention the differences between the race and social class of each American citizen, there is still a lot of evidence showing the presence of gender discrimination when it comes to the practice of human sterilization. The Eugenical Sterilization Act, which protects the surgeons and physicians from performing a coercive sterilization on mentally ill patients, was legally passed in California and other states in the U.S. to protect the government from excessively large amounts of tax burden (Lombardo). As reported by Lombardo, approximately 83.3% of 3,000 individuals who were a victim of involuntarily sterilization throughout the United States came from the state of California back in 1924. This figure significantly increased up to 60,000 Americans during the mid-1970s. Tens and thousands of men and women who were admitted to mental institutions during the early 20th century were forced to undergo human sterilization (Stern). It remains a fact that there is a huge discrepancy in the number of men and women who were either voluntarily or forced to have human sterilization as permanent fertility control was recorded in this period. Between the periods of 1970 to 1978, it was reported that as many as 4.2 million women between the age brackets of 15 to 44 years of age were given tubal sterilization in the United States (DeStefano, Greenspan and Ory). Based on a randomized research survey study using a questionnaire for a combined face-to-face and telephone interview, as much as 141 women and 25 men received tubal ligation and vasectomy respectively out of the 1,020 respondents (Chow, Rider and Su). With regards to the high number of registered women who received tubal ligation as compared to men who received vasectomy, the National Center for Health Statistics (1978) explained that one of the main reasons why more black American women receive tubal ligation is because most of the white American men prefer to have vasectomy. Based on one of the most current research findings, 14% out of 3,391 women who participated in the study were white women who had a current partner with a vasectomy as compared to Hispanic and African American women with 5% and 4% respectively (Borrero, Schwarz and Reeves). Considering the explanation given to us by the National Center for Health Statistics (1978) and the findings of Borrero, Schwarz, and Reeves, it is clear that the preservation of socio-economic status, personal choices, and a better perception of white American men have regarding vasectomy are among the factors that contribute as to why there is a higher rate of white American men who undergo vasectomy than African American men. However, these factors do not fully apply to African American population because of the presence of some additional cultural factors. For this reason, more African American women end up having tubal ligation as compared to the number of African American men who have undergone vasectomy. Regardless of whether having a tubal ligation is a personal preference or not, several studies revealed that a greater number of African American women as compared to the white American women received tubal ligation because of financial limitations, religion, insurance and marital status (Borrero, Schwarz and Reeves; DeStefano, Greenspan and Ory). Likewise, Stern also revealed that individuals who belong to the minority group such as in the case of Mexican Americans and other immigrants were given no choice but to participate in a coercive eugenic sterilization. Upon analyzing the entire situation, it does seem that the concern regarding genetic defects coupled with perhaps unconscious attempts to protect the ‘dominant’ race, the white Americans, has had a great impact upon the surgeons’ decision to perform forced human sterilization on both men and women. In other words, classcism that is present within and outside the health and medical institutions throughout the United States contributes to the development of racial and ethnic discrimination triggers that contribute to the practice of prejudicial acts and decision-making with regards to forced human sterilization (Feldberg; Krieger and Fee; Markel). Although large-scale public concern in family planning, the need to control the increasing population, and the reproductive health of women who have experienced multiple childbirth and pregnancies remains high, most of the existing human sterilization policies and programs are more focused on women rather than men. Upon calling a local planned parenthood, a member of the staff told me that “they do not force anyone to get sterilization and had no comment on the patient’s ethnicity or gender statistics since this type of information is confidential.” According to Hussain, one of the possible reasons that cause women to have forced tubal ligation is due to the fact that a lot of countries like the United States are still being ruled by male dominance – a type of cultural norm that places men in control (Hussain). A recent research study result pertaining to racial differences in tubal ligation revealed that African American women more than 30 years of age prefer to implement tubal ligation reversal as compared to white Americans who have had similar surgeries (Borrero, Reeves and Schwarz). This indicates that the African American women who were commonly the subject of forced human sterilization would prefer the use of alternative birth control methods rather than going through permanent infertility caused by surgical intervention. Based on basic human rights, each individual regardless of their race, gender, and social status in life has the right to chose and decide for their own preferred birth control treatment such as choosing to use less invasive and more temporary forms of birth control methods. Because of mental illnesses or lack of adequate financial resources, a lot of women who belong to the minority group or are members of minority races are usually being forced to receive human sterilization. It has been a long time debate that this type of medical practice should no longer be tolerated. Contrary to the desire of African Americans and other minorities to implement tubal ligation reversal, there are also cases wherein some white American women who do not want to have a child seeks medical help for tubal ligation but doctors simply refuse to sterilize them because of young age or lack of permission from their husband (Radical Doula). Not all patients who seek medical assistance on family planning are being forced to undergo human sterilization. Despite the government’s effort to promote equal opportunity towards the access in health care services, it is clear that gender and racial discrimination with regards to forced human sterilization still exists. In reality, gender and racial discrimination on forced human sterilization not only depends on the socio-economic status of each person but also their ability to contribute something back to the society. The U.S. state government is responsible in terms of supporting the financial, mental, and social needs of the neglected children. Given the fact that mentally incapacitated individuals are not capable of performing their responsibilities as a parent, most of the state governments legally support the promotion of eugenic sterilization. For this reason, thousands of men and women who did not have the capacity to financially support themselves at one point in their lives suffered from becoming a victim of forced human sterilization for the remainder of it. Read More