Western presence in the Middle East - Essay Example

Western Presence in the Middle East: Establishing Motive The Western presence, in different forms and by different nations representing the West, has deep roots in the Middle East and the Gulf region. To be sure, the Western presence today is more of a continuation of these older precedents than a novel or unique circumstance. The purpose of this essay is to outline and to analyze the particular motives underlying these persistent territorial ambitions. To this end, twelve motives will be presented. These motives, taken together, provide a clearer understanding of conflict in the Middle East than an analysis of any particular motive in isolation. This is because many of the motives are, to some extant, interrelated; more specifically, economic motives such as energy security, in turn, give rise to additional national security and strategic geographical considerations. The Middle East is a complex study. As a preliminary matter, it is first necessary to provide some brief geographical and historical context. There is a great deal of debate, some historically-based and some semantically-based, regarding the precise dimensions of the Middle East in both geographical and cultural terms. Such a discussion is beyond the scope of this paper; therefore, for the purposes of this essay, the Middle East will be defined to include Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In addition, it is significant to note that the modern origins of the territorial struggle can be dated to 1918. This is when "the Ottoman sultanate, the last of the great Muslim empires, was finally defeated-its capital, Constantinople, occupied, its sovereign held captive, and much of its territory partitioned between the victorious British and French Empires" (Lewis, 2001: np). As the Ottoman Empire was conquered, Turkey became a peripheral, though significant, part of the Middle East. Although Turkey did regain its independence, it did so as a secular nation rather than as a Muslim nation. This essay will focus on post-1918 events and motives. 1.1. Oil Motive No discussion of the Middle East can take place without a reference to oil and larger issues of economics and energy security. The West is most fundamentally drawn to the Middle East in order to secure and safeguard its access to oil. Indeed, as stated by Hill & Telhami et al, The Persian Gulf region remains central to the global oil market and will become even more vital in the future. U.S. oil imports from outside the Middle East will not change this fact. The United States and the other major oil importers -- western Europe and increasingly, as Morse and Richard note, South and East Asia -- are all part of a single, seamless oil market driven by supply and demand, and global demand for oil has risen steadily over the last several decades. Oil currently accounts for 40 percent of global energy consumption and is not anticipated to fall much below this share in the next 20 years (2002: np). The West is dependent on the Middle East for a huge percentage of its energy needs. Significantly, there is an increasing demand for oil being driven by non-traditional countries; more precisely, both South Asia and East Asia are demanding more oil as their economies develop and grow. China and India are countries which may increase their participation in the Middle East, driven by the same motivations as the West. 1.2 Strategic Geographical Motive In addition to oil, there are very practical geographical considerations. During the Cold War, for example, the Middle East was treated by the West and the Soviet Union as a proxy for their larger ideological and military competitions. Today, China is increasingly seen as a defender of Iran and a defender of Arab rights and self-determination. The region links continents, is possessed with major shipping routes, and is a necessary link for the transport of oil. Thus, the geographical motive refers to a strategic physical location where political alliances can be made, economic and financial relationships established, and from which military power can be projected Richard Pipes, in fact, argued that the strategic geographical motive was far more significant to many in the West, during the Cold War, than the oil motive, "Briefly put, "foreign policy conservatives" see the Soviet danger as preeminent and view almost every facet of international relations through the prism of the Soviet threat" (1984: np). In short, to some extant, the Western presence in the Middle East was motivated by a perceived need to cut off the Soviet Union's geographical expansion. Today, there are some concerns about China and radical Islam along similar lines of reasoning. 1.3 Anti--Terrorism Motive An increasingly common justification for intervention in the Middle East is the assertion by the West that it is a breeding ground for terrorists. Islam has been associated with terrorism; more precisely, radical Islam has been associated with terrorism. The concept itself is not particularly new. Arafat was labeled a terrorist long before the World Trade Center was destroyed by alleged terrorists of Middle Eastern origin. Many other groups, such as those opposing Western and Israeli interests, have been characterized as terrorists. What is significant, for purposes of this essay, is how the terrorism issue became an almost overnight rationale for Western intervention in the Middle East. This became a War Against Terrorism, the terrorists are born and trained in this region, and we must go to the source to fight the enemy (Gause, 2005: np). While the underlying validity of this motive is open to question, there is nonetheless a large enough group of people asserting this motive to make it of particular relevance at the current moment in history. 1.4. Energy Security Motive The energy security motive is closely related to the oil motive, though they have differences (Pollack, 2003: np). Access to oil, while important, is not the only motive at work in the Middle East. The West has broader concerns regarding energy security. This means suppliers whom will honor their commitments, transportation infrastructure which will not be hijacked or destroyed, and promises that multinational investments will not be nationalized or otherwise abused. As Russia and Venezuela begin to flex their muscles on the international energy scene, this motive becomes even more critical for western countries and for western corporations. The American military, as stated by Pollack, is well-trained and well-positioned to "secure the gulf" if serious threats are made to its energy security. France, for example, was rumored to have violated the United Nations food for oil program in order to illegally enhance its energy security. In short, the West is motivated not simply by oil, but also by the need to safeguard the profits flowing from the oil industry and the economic effects of disruptions and abuse by antagonistic governments. 1.5 Global Competition Motive There are competitive motives driven by international economics and by new discoveries of energy resources. First, the demand for oil is increasing. As a result, there is more competition for influence and power in the Middle East. China has assumed a counterweight position to the West. They have become increasingly involved in political affairs, economic affairs, and even offered technical military assistance to countries in the region. This interest is driven by the global competition motive. Ask the Muslims or the people of Tibet how they are treated in China and it will quickly be demonstrated that there is no spiritual affinity between China and the countries of the Middle East. This is politics and competition. The West perceives China as a threat and must safeguard its interests. In addition, this global competition motive is further illustrated by the proliferation and growing strength of energy suppliers. Russia, Venezuela, and, to some extant, Nigeria, have attempted to humble the West using energy resources. Dick Cheney recently accused Russian President Putin of using energy to blackmail the Ukraine in national elections. The global competition motive is real. 1.6 Democracy Motive A fashionable motive in some circles is the notion that the West can recreate the Middle East in its own image. The West has both encouraged and arranged democratic elections in the Middle East. This motive, however, seems more idealistic than practical. The West is trying to arrange elections in Iraq, but this is proving difficult; more, the West is well-known for supporting authoritarian regimes such as those in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Finally, when a country like Lebanon elects representatives the West doesn't like, it abandons the democracy motive. Though fashionable, this motive seems more propaganda than sincere ("U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East", 2002: np). 1.7 Civilization Motive Conflicts between and among civilizations are hardly new; however, with the fairly recent publication of Samuel Huntington's The Clash of Civilizations, the idea that different groupings of countries are locked in a perpetual struggle for ascendancy has assumed a renewed and reinvigorated relevance. The West, despite protests to the contrary, is afraid of Islam. The difficulties which Turkey is encountering in its bid to join the European Union are illustrative. The notion that radical Islam will spread to southeast Asian countries, such as Indonesia and Thailand, is reminiscent of the domino theories espoused during the Cold War and the conflicts with Cuba and Vietnam. Western leaders speak of prevailing and safeguarding their ideals and their customs. Religion is often invoked both by the West and the Middle East. The motive underlying a perceived need to prevail as a civilization is a plausible explanation for Western presence in the Middle East. 1.8 Peace Motive Many people assert that the Middle East is the most likely region from which the next World War will emerge. What is most fascinating about this motive is that it is shared by most of the world. The reasons, however, are fundamentally different. Christian evangelicals see war as prophecy; neoconservatives see Iran and Syria as dangers to world peace; Europe recently declared Israel the greatest threat to world peace; much of the remaining world sees America as behaving much like Germany prior to the outbreak of World War 2; and, a nuclear-armed Israel sees itself as under a perpetual state of siege. Whether reasonable or not, many in the West stereotype Arabs and Persians as trigger-happy, suicidal fanatics. They reason that the West must keep the peace. The west must prevent catastrophic disruptions of energy resources and catastrophic wars in the region. Whose peace motive one chooses to accept is a most difficult question to answer; that does not, however, diminish the reality that many in the West believe that they are vested with the obligation, as capable countries, to preserve the peace in such a strategically important region. 1.9 U.S. Dollar Motive Though not an overarching western motive, America is clearly motivated to be present in the Middle East in order to safeguard the United States dollar. Petrol dollars are largely settled by resort to the dollar, and allowing other countries to compete in this lucrative currency market could have significant effects. Iran and Hugo Chavez have suggested replacing the dollar as the oil currency. Strangely, the countries privy to the Euro-currency have remained rather silent. The foreign currency motive is a strong one, and might very well cause rifts in the West. The dollar motive is a legitimate motive and a strong one, though it is almost never discussed by the mainstream media. 1.10 Israel Motive Middle Eastern countries often assert that the Western presence is largely a result of their support for Israel The manner in which this motive is expressed ranges from rational expressions of shared security interests to irrational assertions that Israel controls the West through secretive networks of bribery and blackmail. That said, Israel is a motive for the Western presence. The West uses Israel to further some of the aforementioned motives, and Israel uses the West to accomplish some of its security interests. The Israeli motive is real; it is, perhaps, less powerful than motives dealing with oil, energy security, and strategic geographical considerations. 1.11 Christian and Evangelical Motives There are religious and cultural motives as well as the standard military, political and economic motives. The role which the Middle East plays in the religious and spiritual life of people in the West is unquestioned. It possesses, so the story goes, the birthplace of Christ. There is unfulfilled prophecy and certain organizations which believe that religious wars are inevitable. The Pope has recently come under attack from many in the Middle East for making comments deemed offensive to Muslims around the world. Christian and evangelical groups around the world support Israel through tourism to the Holy Land and they support politicians whom promise to keep the Holy Land safe from the barbarians. George W. Bush capitalized on this religious motive by securing many votes from the Religious Right. His presence in the Middle East is almost unprecedented in modern times. This motive is both real and a bit frightening. 1.12 Middle East Politics Motive Finally, a motive which is often overlooked is the fact that the West is often manipulated by countries in the region. To suggest that the Middle East would be a harmonious paradise if the West would only leave is absurd and contradicted by the facts. There are religious conflicts between Shia Muslims and Shite Muslims; there are tribal conflicts within countries; and, there are age-old conflicts between some countries. Middle Eastern politics demands a Western presence. Where, for instance, would the monarchy in Saudi Arabia be without Western support Where would Israel be without a Western presence The reality is that competing groups invite a presence in order to obtain the financial and military support needed to hold off rival groups. This is a significant but underreported motive. In the final analysis, the Middle East is an extraordinarily complex region to study. People and countries compete in the Middle East. The compete for economic reasons, they compete for religious reasons,, they compete for ideological reasons, and they compete for personal, selfish reasons. Any understanding of the Middle East requires a comprehensive understanding of motives. Works Cited Hill, F. & Telhami, S., et al. "Does Saudi Arabia Still Matter Differing Perspectives on the Kingdom and Its Oil." Foreign Affairs, November/December 2002. Accessed 21 September 2006. Gause, F. G. Can Democracy Stop Terrorism Foreign Affairs, September/October 2005 Accessed 21 September 2006. Lewis, B. "THE REVOLT OF ISLAM: When did the conflict with the West begin, and how could it end" The New Yorker (September 19, 2001). Accessed 21 September 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/011119fa_FACT2 Pipes, D. "Breaking All The Rules: The Middle East in U.S. Policy." International Security, Fall 1984. Accessed 21 September 2006. www.danielpipes.org/article Pollack, K. "Securing the Gulf." Foreign Affairs, July/August 2003. Accessed 22 September 2006. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030701faessay15401/kenneth-m-pollack/securing-the-gulf.html "U.S. Propaganda in the Middle East - The Early Cold War Version." National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 78, Edited by Joyce Battle, December 13, 2002. accessed 21 September 2006. http://www.gwu.edu/nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB78/ Read More