Modern Age Europe - Assignment Example

Modern Age Europe 1348-1789 Phase Definitions The Ptolemaic system in Copernicus’s time was deemed as the standardexplanation of the earth’s position in regard to the heavens. It was also combined with the mathematical astronomy of Ptolemy and the physical cosmology of Aristotle, which used the assumption of geocentrism. It asserted that the earth was the central part of the cosmos and that it was surrounded by concentric spheres probably fluid in nature, the sun, moon, planets and the stars (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 420). At the spheres helm, lay God’s realm together with the angels. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a polish priest and an astronomer. He adopted elements of Ptolemaic model and transferred them to a heliocentric (sun-centered) model. The heliocentric model used the assumption that the earth revolved round the sun in a circle (Kagan et al, 422). In relation to Ptolemy’s system, his epicycles were smaller, and the inverted motion of the planets was explained to occur due to an optical illusion that came up because people were observing them from the earth, which was moving. He argued that some planets were far away from the sun; thus, took a long time to revolve around it. Tycho Brahe (1546– 1601), a Danish astronomer, took the next significant step towards improving the idea of the sun-centered system. He suggested that Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun but that the moon, the sun and the other planets orbited round the earth (Kagan et al, 69). Brahe made scientific instruments with which he made more advanced findings of planets than anyone else had done. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German astronomer and assistant to Brahe took possession of Brahe’s table upon his demise. He believed in the Copernican heliocentric model and was deeply influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonism, which holds the sun in peculiar honor. He let go of the circular components of the Copernicus’s model; the epicycles after he eventually realized that the sun had to be at the centre of things. Based on the findings that emerged from his study of Brahe’s work, Keppler produced the first astronomical model that portrayed motion. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) discovered that the heavens were extremely complex than anyone had ever suspected. He knew that few people possessed the knowledge, so he used his rhetorical skills to show that he was concerned with developing the facts further, and not opposing them. Galileo named the moons of Jupiter after his patron, Medici. In order to win support both for his continued work and theories, he named the moons of Jupiter after Medici’s. Through his political skills and excellent prose, he transformed himself into a high- profile advocate of Copernicanism (Kagan et al, 428). Isaac Newton (1642-1727) had a view that inertia force applies to bodies both at rest and motion. He found out that the planets, as well as the other objects in the space moved by mutually attracting each other; and that every object affected one another through the force of gravity. This is what caused the planets to move in an organized way. Newton also believed in empiricism, a philosophical teaching that emphasized on observation of phenomena before explaining them. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was considered the founder of experimentation and empiricism in science. He worked to link science and material progress in the public mind. He believed that the world was yet to discern novel things. He also had a strong conviction that scholars paid too much attention to traditions and knowledge of ancient findings. Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a talented mathematician who invented the analytic geometry. He concluded that he could not doubt his own act of thinking or his own existence. He then acknowledged the existence of God. He influenced thoughts of philosophers of his time and the present. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) provided a rigorous philosophical justification for a strong central political authority. He advised people not to do unto others what they do not expect to be done to them. However, words and promises are insufficient to guarantee this agreement. He also believed that anarchy was dangerous compared to tyranny (Kagan et al, 430). John Locke (1632– 1704), an influential philosophical and political thinker, some of his works became influential works of psychology for the eighteenth century. Locke later claimed that a person was required to work out his or her own religious salvation. To him, these efforts might lead various people to join different religious groups. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), he made up his own views on these matters in piecemeal fashioning, a provocative collection of humankind and religion which were published and titled ‘Thoughts’. He believed that reason itself was extremely weak to be able to solve human nature related problems and human destiny (Kagan et al, 438). Blaise thereby hoped to stop false optimism that characterized the new rationalism and science. The Hammer of Witches (1486), this was a guide written and sanctioned thereafter by Pope Innocent VIII as an official guide in the church’s detection and punishment of witches. It was believed that more women than men were witches (Kagan et al, 445). Peasant obligations refer to the expectations by the law of the peasants towards their lords. These included offering their services in the lord’s mill for a fee where they would grind grain and bake bread in his oven. This was especially rampant in Russia and Eastern Europe in the eighteenth century. The peasants were forced to hire land from the lord’s hence they owed certain dues to the lord as was stated by the law (Kagan et al, 450). They also offered services to the master in exchange for protection and worked for them in return. Pugachev’s Rebelion took place between 1973 and1975. During this period, it was Emelyan Pugachev who led peasants in a revolution against their lords, in southern Russia. They rebelled against any form of innovation that in their understanding interfered with food stability in the future, which they believed traditional methods would ensure (Kagan et al, 454). They also rebelled against increased feudal dues, increased pricing, unjust officials and the brutal treatment from overseers. Poor house refers to the period in the agricultural revolution; when the lords were focused on increasing their production returns. This led to increased cost of bread, which was the main food. This resulted in greater pressure on the poor society as they could not afford to sustain their families in these economic times. Jethro Tull was a Dutch agricultural researcher dedicated to introducing improved farming methods resulting in increased production. He lived between 1674 and 1741, where his research indicating that manure was not suitable as a fertilizer was rejected. Two of his main research ideas, the use of iron plows for deep tilling and use of land drillings for planting of wheat rather than casting of seeds in open land were viewed as a revolution in how farming was undertaken (Kagan et al, 456). Charles Townsend was another agricultural innovator hailing from England. He lived in the years 1674-1738 where borrowing a leaf from the use of fertilizer; he introduced the use of crop rotation. He mainly dealt with wheat, barley, turnips and clover. He encouraged the growth of crops that could alternatively be used as fodder crop. This ensured an annual supply of both food for humans and fodder for livestock, resulting in an annual supply of meat and manure provided by the livestock. Arthur Young (1741-1820) was a writer whose work mainly focused on innovations in agriculture. He traveled around Europe documenting on improvements in agriculture and was the secretary to the British Board of Agriculture in 1793. Some of his works include the editing of the Annals of Agriculture. Enclosure is the farming method adapted by the landlords in England in the late eighteenth century which involved recapturing wasted land and fencing off blocks of land to ensure gain through maximization of available land hence increasing profits (Kagan, Ozment and Turner, 2010). Here, the strips of land hired by peasants were restructured into blocks hence interfering with ownership of land by the peasants a move that often resulted in riots. Enclosures resulted in capitalization of agriculture as people took a commercialized approach to farming. Spinning Jenny was a cotton weaving machine invented by James Hargreaves in 1765. It increased the production capacity of cotton weavers as it was improved with time. This machine was used in small-scale cottages hence had not yet embraced industrial production of cotton. The machine was meant to increase the production capacity of home-based production of cotton. Water Frame is a cotton weaving machine that revolutionized cotton production resulting in large scale production. It was invented by Richard Arkwright’s and was patented in the year 1769. This invention took advantage of hydro-power as it was operated by use of water. It facilitated the production of pure cotton, which increased the durability of the fabric unlike the former production techniques where the cotton fabric woven contained linen fiber. Power Loom was a weaving machine that allowed weaving by use of power. It was invented by Edmund Cartwright in the 1780’s. In the consequent years, the number of power-looms in Britain far outnumbered hand-looming practices hence increasing the ability of England to produce adequate cotton both for internal and export supply. James Watt (1736-1819) was responsible for the perfection of the steam engine in 1769, which could regularize and increase power provision (Kagan et al, 454). It led to urbanization as steam engines could run anywhere as compared to hydro-power generated mills which were located only in the countryside alongside rivers. Henry Cort was an inventor who lived between1740 and1800. His contribution was the introduction of a better process of cleaning mined iron that resulted in a pure iron ore. The process allowed higher precision in removal of impurities in molten ore. This took place in 1784, in Britain. He also developed a rolling mill that automatically and continually shaped the iron into bars and rails saving on time and cost. Urbanization was the considerable growth in towns and urban centers that took place in the eighteenth century due to search for employment and increase in urban industrialization. This was especially significant in Europe (Kagan et al, 455). The increased growth of urban centers resulted in increased labor force, more innovation and required more sophisticated solutions to social problems. Class Structure: During the growth of urban centers the initial boundaries in economic status became less obvious as the middle class wealth increased because of trade. They neglected tradition and failed to recognize the privileges of the royal. This led to changes in the political and social outlook of Europe. The beginning of this mostly took place in the eighteenth century. Works Cited Kagan, Donald, Turner, Frank & Ozment, Steven. The Western Heritage. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 2010. Print. Read More