Modern Age Europe 1348-1789 - Essay Example

? Topic: Lecturer: Presentation: Introduction Europe has undergone various changes through the Middle Ages, late Middle Ages, renaissance and reformation and during the religious wars. The bubonic plague or what is commonly referred as ‘black death,’ the hundred year’s war as well as the Great Schism all contributed to the periods of prosperity and decline in Europe as well as political, religious, social and cultural changes. For a long time Europe was under the power of monarchs and popes creating a great controversy between the church and the state as to who should hold absolute power. The period between 1350 and 1550 in Europe was also characterized by increased trade among nations, conquest and colonization of states such as Africa and Asia. It was also a period when slave trade was thriving due to labor requirements in plantations, mines, and at homes of the noble citizens. The discovery of the Americas by Columbus also played a great part in the changes that took place thereafter. The aim of this paper is to discuss the political, religious, social and cultural changes that took place in Europe between 1350 and 1550. The paper will thus be divided into four sections. First it will discuss the political changes. Secondly, the religious changes. Thirdly, the social changes will be discussed and lastly, the cultural changes. Political Changes There are various political changes that occurred in Europe from 1350 to 1550. These were necessitated by the various events that occurred during this time such as the bubonic plague, the hundred years war and the rise of national sentiment, the late medieval church the great schism, the renaissance, the reformation age, and the religious wars. All these events affected the political scene in one way or another. First we begin with the bubonic plague which was commonly referred as the ‘black death” due to the nature of its occurrence. This plague was spread in most parts of Europe from Asia through trading routes and led to the death of many Europeans young and old, rich and poor, the clergy and physicians nobody was spared. According to Kagan, Ozment and Turner (257) the plague left almost two-fifths of the population dead between 1348 and 1350. This had a lot of repercussions to European politics. The noble landowners were the most powerful people but the plague deprived them of their power since it rendered agricultural products undesirable and wages were high thus loss of revenues which was the source of power. The church also lost some political power as it depended on land for revenue. On the other hand, the political power of the artisans increased as their items of trade such as jewelry was on high demand. Due to loss of revenue from agricultural produce the government had no option than to apply restrictive legislations and impose taxes on peasants so as to get revenue. As a result there were increased peasant uprisings which were detrimental to the growth of the economy. Another political change in Europe was the increasing nationalism especially in France as a result of the 100 years of war in Europe. The war took place between May 1337 and October 1453 with the defeat of England by France. Before the war, there was a lot of disunity in France which the Estate General took advantage of to usurp the power of the royals. However, efforts by Joan of Arc to unite the country led to nationalistic feelings in France and desire to have a national identity. This led to a political shift whereby France adopted a centralized form of government as opposed to feudal monarchy. Nationalism also led France to dishonor the Treaty of Troyes which had led to disinheritance of the French king by the English king. France was thus able to elect its own king and gain political power. Another crucial outcome of the war was the end of King Edward’s vassalage to the king of France thus acquiring sovereignty over English territories in France although by the end of the war, England had control of only one French territory named Calais. Its power over France had diminished as a result of the rising national sentiment in France. The late medieval Europe was full of controversy between the church and the state. The different groups tried to prove themselves as wielding more political power than the other. The church acted as a political power rather than a spiritual body thus papal monarchy was apparent. The papacy had its own law and courts as regards to taxation, election of church officers among other issues. However, this led to conflict between the popes and kings. Popes claimed they ought to be above kings as they had divine authority from God while kings argued that both the pope and king had equal powers; the pope had power in spiritual affairs and the king had power over temporal affairs and both derived this power from divine power. In the end, the state won and thus had political power over the church. Consequently, legislations were passed in France, England and Germany that restricted papal jurisdiction and taxation. Besides political power shifting from papacy to kings, another political change was the formation of formal parliament in England leading to the unification of the kingdom. Another important political change in Europe was the end of Mongol rule in Russia. The medieval Russia regarded the Kiev as the dominant political and cultural center although it later lost dominance after the death of Vladimir (Kagan et al. 278). Principalities emerged ruled by three types of government; monarchy aristocracy and democracy. These principalities later became under the Mongol empire. Another change experienced as a result of decline in Mongol rule was the replacement of Kiev as a political center by Moscow. Princes took advantage and conquered surrounding areas to expand Moscow thereby making it the dominant center. The renaissance period saw the growth of education and politics in Europe. It was a period of discovery of new continents such as the Americas enabled by discoveries in new knowledge and languages and growth of humanist movement. The politics of Europe underwent various changes during this period. The growth of art such as the printing press with movable parts gave power to elites and was used to further political agenda. It also enhanced European expansion into other continents such as America Africa and Asia. This discovery led to growth of trade and industries in Europe and change of the economies from feudal to capitalism. The period also witnessed the unity of city-states against common enemy which was France. Before each of the five cities; Duchy of Milan, Republics of Florence and Venice, Papal States and the kingdom of Naples were independent. A centralized government was formed and monarchy revived whose work was taxation, enforce laws, and create national armies (Kagan et al. 297). The religious wars in Europe also had great impact on European politics. These wars were not only religious but also political since the dominant religion in a state was determined by the rulers or kings. The reigning king was very influential and his/her success depended on the religion in place. As a result state religions emerged. For example, Queen Elizabeth established the Anglican Church which incorporated the catholic doctrines as well as protestant doctrines as a tool to enhance political unity. Religious factions were also used by states to acquire territories and also to defend own territories hence gain sovereignty. Religious Changes Many religious reforms occurred in Europe between 1350 and 1550 prompted by various events such as Black Death, renaissance reformation and the religious wars among others. The Black Death led to death of clergy and decline in power of the church due to loss of revenue from lands. However, it gained many believers seeking help to bury the dead and prepare and cope with death. The war led to introduction of taxes to fund war efforts. This led to great conflict between church and state as the clergy were against taxation. This worsened during the medieval ages as powerful kings retaliated against the clergy. It led to weakening of the church power and its control by state. The late medieval also experienced increased taxation of believers to fund the church, sale of indulgencies to the living as well as the dead for unrepented sins, and growth of the doctrine on purgatory. The events of the war led to the great schism which saw the deposition of the pope by the concilliar for the first time in history of Europe. The period also saw the emergence of three popes in rule as none was ready to give up the papacy. The congregation was also allowed to partake of the Eucharist with the cup like the clergy, emergence of free preaching and punishment of clergy for mortal sins committed. The renaissance was a period of great religious changes. The growth in classical arts and printing gave power to church elites to read and translate the bible for themselves hence the beginning of church reform in Europe. The elites could preach the message to international congregation thus gaining support against the Roman Catholic. Humanism also led to explorations and missionary work that led to mass conversions of Muslims and pagans into Christianity. The renaissance period prepared way for religious reforms in Europe. The age of reformation was dominated by conflicts between the church and state. There emerged other denominations in the church other than Roman Catholic such as the protestants. These protestants also split into various factions such the Calvinists, Lutherans, Anabaptists and Huguenots. They protested against practices such as sale of indulgencies, almsgiving, confession and celibacy. The dominant religion became the state religion during the reformation. The church saw reforms in that now the clergy could marry and have children worship was now done in vernacular as opposed to Latin religious holidays were minimized, fasting were now not compulsory, images in churches were removed, the clergy could also pay taxes and indulgence preachers were done away with. Another change was the involvement of women in religious duties and strong emphasis on the sacredness of the home and family (Kagan et al. 338). The age of reformation which saw the split of churches led to the 30 years of religious wars in Europe. There was struggle between the various denominations as to which sect would be the state religion thus conflict between churches. Interference by ruling kings for political gains worsened the situation. Many Protestants as well as Catholics were massacred by the ruling class. By the end of the war, religious rights of various denominations such as Huguenots were recognized. Rulers were also given the right to determine the religious beliefs of the citizens. Social Changes Social changes were apparent in Europe from 1350 to 1550. One of the main social changes was the shift in power of various social classes due to the plague. The plague led to decline of population and consequently decline in labor force. Shortage of labor in turn led to increases in wages. This was detrimental to the landholders who lost revenue due to less demand and increased wages hence loss of power. On the other hand, the artisans gained more power due to shift in demand from agricultural products to luxurious products. Peasant revolts were also in the increase due to measures introduced to save landholders as well as introduction of taxes to curb the plague and fund the war that was taking place in Europe. The war was also beneficial to Italian bankers Estates General who acted as financiers for government war efforts. These two classes gained a lot of power during the 100 years of war. The late medieval ages and renaissance period saw much freedom for the society. There was growth in education which affected the social life. People now had access to information especially due to the emergence of the printing press hence could make informed decisions and take control of their lives by pressing for reforms. People could get employment in various fields such as teaching instead of relying on farm labor. The renaissance period also witnessed the emergence of various classes of citizens prompted by capitalist system of government leading to social conflicts. In Florence for example, there were four social groups: the old rich nobles and merchants; newly rich merchants, capitalists and bankers; guilded masters and shop owners; lower class (Kagan et al. 284). There were a lot of conflicts between these classes and uprisings. The shift in production saw the strengthening of slavery in plantations. These slaves offered free labor or forced labor in the newly acquired territories such as the Americas. This gave wealth to the capitalists at expense of the laborers. The reformations also changed the society a great deal. The society had been for a long time bound by Roman Catholic strict rules of observing rituals and leading a strictly religious life. It was believed that good works led to salvation hence confession of sins was not enough but was followed by good works. The society was now not obliged to fast or observe religious holidays. The clergy were also free to marry and more so, women were allowed to divorce and remarry. The use of birth control methods was also helpful to women who could now control the size of their families and lead healthy lives. The religious wars were detrimental to society due to the increased deaths. However the society benefited by being allowed to exercise their rights of religion as well as from peace that emanated after the wars. Cultural Changes Europe experienced a cultural renaissance during this period. The people were astonished by the bubonic plague that they changed their lifestyles. Their belief in omnipotence of death led them to incline towards industrial goods rather than agricultural products. The migration from rural to urban areas also affected the culture as various groups intermingled. Another aspect of culture affected was the long standing tradition of vassalage. This tradition was eroded by the 100 years of war in Europe as each state fought for national identity. Another cultural aspect that changed was the power of the council to remove popes from office. According to Kagan et al (275) the deposition of a pope was debated for 30 years before any action could be taken. This deposition is what led to the emergence of three popes’ rule in 1409. Art renaissance was in offing from 1375-1527. Great pieces of classical art were recovered leading to cultural changes. The vernacular language became a means of communication alongside Latin and ancient norms and values were revived. This was enhanced by the study of Latin and Greek classics. The renaissance art as opposed to medieval art could be used to depict human emotions as well as the natural world. Superior items were developed due to artistic skills such as the printing press with movable parts which revolutionalized thinking in Europe. The reformation had influence of culture. It led to increased role of women in society, change in the institution of marriage and religious culture. Celibacy was no longer of importance and fasting was not compulsory. The laity was also allowed to take Eucharist with the cup defying the long traditional practice of only the priests using the cup. The medieval Russia also contributed to cultural change. Russia was divided into three cultural groups: Great Russians White Russians and little Russians with Kiev being the cultural center. However after the Mongol rule Kiev was replaced by Moscow as cultural center. The Russian women were forced to adopt Muslim tradition of wearing veils and seclusion. As a result, Russia was culturally different from other European countries. Conclusion Europe underwent various political, religious, social and cultural changes between 1350 and 1550. These changes were as a result of the various events taking place in Europe during this time such as the black death, the 100 years war, ecclesiastical breakdown and revival, the great schism, renaissance, reformation and the religious wars. Some of the significant changes were the loss of political power by popes in favor of kings thus the state had power over religion and determined the religious beliefs of its subjects. The political economy also moved from feudal monarchy to capitalism leading to increased class divisions and conflicts in the society. The introduction of taxation to finance the government war efforts also led to rebellions and social changes. Most significant was the church reformation that saw emergence of protestant churches and changes in the way the church rituals are conducted. Cultural reforms were also apparent during the renaissance with high technical skills being used in production. These changes were the foundation of the modern Europe. Reference Kagan Donald, Ozment Steven and Turner Frank. The Western Heritage, Vol. B. 10th ed. Prentice Hall. Print. Read More