Modern Age Europe 1348-1789 Phase Definition 2 - Essay Example

Modern Age Europe Key Terms and Concepts Definitions for Chapter 16 Mercantilism is a system of economy whereby businesspeople (mercantilists) assume that there are scarce resources in the world. Consequently, there ought to be economic limits of these resources for the growth of a country. This led to agricultural and industrial expansions in the west during the 18th century (Donald, Ozment & Turner 464). Slave ships were the main mode of transport for slaves from the shipment area along the coasts into Europe and the Americas. The slaves were tied together in the large ships to avoid escaping. This was quite inhuman and some slaves ended up dying in the ships due to inhumane treatment. They were deprived of food and lived in pathetic conditions whereby there was overcrowding in the ships. Many of the slaves died as a result of this. Plantations are large estates whereby a single type of crop is grown. Plantations mainly concentrate on growth of cash crops such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum, cotton and tobacco. In Europe and the Americas, the slaves were used to provide labor in these plantations. Most of the slaves came from Africa although there were others from Asia (Donald, Ozment & Turner 466). Asiento is the permission that was given to countries by Spain, to sell people who would become laborers in these countries. The Sugar Act (1764) was a taxation measure put in place by the British so as to increase funds for supporting the colonies. The act was passed during the reign of George Grenville. The motive behind the measure was to maximize earning of revenue from imports that went into the colonies from Britain. Anybody who violated this taxation measure by evasion of payment or any other way was tried in a court of law. This move ensured that people paid the taxes. The Stamp Act (1765) was a tax measure passed by Parliament. The main objective of taxation was to collect money for use in the colonies. The act involved taxation on all documents dealing with issues of law as well as documents like daily newspapers. Several critics of the act, such as Sons of Liberty, led to its review in 1766. This move was meant to make the act favorable for the people living in the colonies. Charles Townshend (1725-1767) was a chancellor and finance minister in Britain. He is remembered for his efforts, to have parliament sign some acts, for enhancing colonial trade. His relentless efforts did not see the light of the day for some time, but eventually, the British parliament signed some of the acts that he proposed. Intolerable acts refer to drastic measures that were taken by the Parliament in order to deal with the people living in the colonies. One of the measures was closure of the Boston port. This hindered transport in the area to a great extent. The other drastic measures were the moves by parliament to have troops living in private households and the reorganizing of the Massachusetts’ governance structures (Donald, Ozment & Turner 476). George III (1760-1820) was a Briton who served the British government during the period preceding independence and thereafter. He was accused of being an accomplice of the British Parliament in denying people in the colonies their civil liberties between 1763 and 1776. He did not show any efforts to include the Whig families in his leadership, although the families had served the government for a long time. The First Continental Congress was one of the meetings by committees which were opposed to the British policies and systems of governance. The committee meeting was held in Philadelphia in the year 1774. Its sole aim was to ask and convince the Parliament to go back to restoration of self-rule and stop supervising the activities of the colonies directly (Donald, Ozment & Turner 483). The Treaty of Paris refers to an agreement that was made by key leaders of countries in Europe and America after many years of war. This peace treaty was signed in Paris, France in 1783 (Donald, Ozment & Turner 463) John Wilkes (1725-1797) was a radical politician as well as a British member of parliament, based in London. He is remembered for criticizing the rule of Earl Bute in his newspaper The North Briton. Following this move, he was arrested and later released under considerations that he was a Member of Parliament. The East India Company is a company that was formed between the British and Indians. It was primarily to the benefit of British who hoped to increase the volume of trade between Britain and Asian countries (particularly East and south East Asian countries). House of trade was a Spanish government agency which carried out many operations on behalf of the Spanish government (Donald, Ozment & Turner 482). It carried out exploration of colonies and took part in colonization of countries on behalf of Spain. Peninsulares refers to the Spaniards who were born in Spain but lived in other countries. These are the people who mainly lived in the Americas and Britain in the 18th century. Euro-African phenomenon describes the deculturation of Africans which resulted from slavery. The African slaves were made to abandon their culture in favor of European culture. Therefore, they became Euro-Africans. The Atlantic passage refers to the forced acquisition and transportation of slaves from Africa to the America across the Atlantic Ocean. Slave ships passed through the Atlantic Ocean, from the West African coast and other African areas. The knowledge of this passage became known to historians and other people through memoirs written by sailors and captains of slave ships (Donald, Ozment & Turner 471). Slave seasoning refers to a process that the slaves went through so as to get acculturated in the new western countries. This involved changing of names, preparation for labor provision, acquisition of new skills, and lessons on local European languages since they were the main languages of instruction to the laborers (Donald, Ozment & Turner 473) Key Terms and Concepts Definitions for Chapter 17 to page 517 Philosophers were political thinkers who advocated for civil liberty in the west during the enlightenment period. They urged people to use reason in defining every moment of their lives. Their writings influenced political thinking as well as governance to a large extent. They also published books, articles and treatises about different topics such as nature, politics and religion. They include people like, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, David Hume, Dideriot, Adam Smith and D’Alembert. Some of them were economists and historians (Donald, Ozment & Turner 508). The Spectator is a British magazine. It is one of the oldest weekly magazines in Britain having been published for the first time in 1828. The magazine was popular among conservatives in the past especially those who were living in the colonies. Denis Dideriot and D’Alembert wrote the encyclopedia that aimed at transforming the society economically (Donald, Ozment & Turner 504). They were also philosophers. Voltaire lived between 1694 and 1778. His real name was Francois-Marie Arouet. This is a philosopher who was arrested on several occasions for criticizing governance in France; especially in his book Letters on the English. In an attempt to escape arrest, he went into exile in England (1726) and Lorraine as well as Berlin, Germany. Deism is the belief in a supernatural being. The term comes from the word deity, meaning a powerful being which is seen to transcend all things in the nature. In the context of the book, it is the belief of using religion and reason to understand nature. The people who upheld this belief hoped to remove priests from church leadership (Donald, Ozment & Turner 499). Baron d'Holbach was an atheist and philosopher. He wrote several books and articles against use of religion in thinking. Baruch Spinoza is another philosopher associated with this phase. He was a Jewish philosopher who argued that people should employ reason in their day to day activities instead of relying on traditional religious beliefs. He was excommunicated from the synagogue due to these thoughts (Donald, Ozment & Turner 501). On the contrary, Mendelsohn argued that someone could use religious thoughts based on Judaism, and reason to understand daily experiences (Donald, Ozment & Turner 502). Marquis Cesare Beccaria wrote about justice, laws, crime and punishment for law breakers. He was an aristocrat and philosopher from Italy. The physiocrats were the people who argued against supervision and interference of economic activities by the government. They developed policies aimed at economic development in France. Adam Smith was an economist who believed that progress of economies would only come after enactment of civil liberties (Donald, Ozment & Turner 505). Thus he championed for abolition of taxes, tariffs and regulation of labor by the government. Charles de Montesquieu criticized the European cultures and social ills from an Islamic perspective. Jean Jacques Rousseau was a unique philosopher in the sense that he did not agree with the thoughts of other philosophers. He hated his society and blamed unequal distribution of resources for the social evils in the society. However, he believed that the society was more important than an individual (Donald, Ozment & Turner 508). Mary Wollstonecraft was a feminist who championed for equality between men and women in terms of resources and rights. She is a renowned feminist who urged both men and women to support women’s liberation movements against patriarchy, which makes women subordinate to men. Critics of the European empires are individuals and organizations that were against the European empires. They criticized the empires due to the inhumane conditions that existed within these empires. For instance, slavery and infringement on the right to freedom of movement coupled with serious economic and social problems saw a lot of criticism with the critics. They informed people out of the empires about these conditions, and urged them to unite towards eradicating the problems (Donald, Ozment & Turner 483). Rococo and Neoclassical styles of art are two contrasting styles of the 18th century western countries. Rococo was focused on affluent decorations which were light with bright colors. It was popular with the French aristocrats and was later adopted across European countries. On the contrary, neoclassical style was more concerned with figures and architecture of the Renaissance period and ancient societies. Mid-Eighteenth-Century Wars Mid-eighteenth century wars refer to a series of wars that occurred in major states of Europe at the middle of the 18th century. It occurred just before the French Revolution, and military officers (mainly navies and armies) played a major role of fighting in the wars. The main areas where the wars took place were eastern and central Europe, as well as overseas empires. One of the wars that characterized this era was the War of Jenkin’s Ear. Robert Jenkin was a British merchant whose ear had been cut by a Spanish national in 1731. In 1739, the British engaged the Spanish in a war that marked the beginning of a series of wars that were fought in Europe up to 1815. The war began due to the repeated atrocities of Spaniards on the British. This war was followed by the War of the Austrian Succession. It took place between 1740 and 1748. It was caused by the move of Frederick II, king of Prussia, to take up Silesia and make it his own sphere of influence. Silesia was an Austrian province in Germany. Following the sustenance of aggression between Britain and other countries, hatred developed among these countries leading to war. A notable war that arose out of this hatred is the Continental War. Britain’s efforts to fight Spain were put to the test when France joined the war on the side of Spain. France supported Spain and thereafter gained a desire to own Austria. France and Britain endeavored to have Austria as their colony. This conflict went to higher magnitude in 1744 when France gave support to Spain (an enemy of Britain). This meant that the French militants as well as economic resources would be divided so as to serve both Spain and France. The war ended in 1748 and marked the defeat of France. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is an agreement that was signed after the Continental War. It marked the end of the war and brought the fighting nations into a platform where they could discuss their problems and articulate their grievances (Donald, Ozment & Turner 479). The following agreements were reached during the signing of the peace agreement; Prussia would retain Silesia, and there would be a renewal of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) by Spain so as to maintain the privilege of Britain in importing slaves to Spanish colonies. The Diplomatic Revolution (1756) occurred even with the presence of peace agreements. In spite of the peace treaty signed after the Continental War, both Britain and France engaged in numerous conflicts especially along River Ohio valley and upper New England (Donald, Ozment & Turner 479). These conflicts were witnessed on several occasions and they finally led to the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1755) Maria Theresa (1740-1780) played a major role in preservation of Habsburg state (Donald, Ozment & Turner 478). Her wish was that Habsburg would remain an empire which resembled a major power in the realm of politics. She was a hero who got plenty of support from different people especially for having become a leader in the Habsburg state at only 23 years. She preserved her state through recognition of Hungary, and promise of independence to Magyar nobility. The Seven Years’ War of 1756-1763 is a war that took place for seven years in the west, just as the name suggests. It owes its outbreak to Frederick II of France. He invaded Saxony with the paranoid notion that Saxony, France and Austria had conspired to make a complete destruction of Prussia (Donald, Ozment & Turner 480). Indeed his guess was right. The three powers made alliances to support their activities in the war. France and Austria formed an alliance in 1757, and were later joined by Russia and Sweden in their efforts to destroy Prussia. The powers began declining when Britain reduced its financial assistance in the war. Death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia and Tsar Peter III who had succeeded her were also major blows to the war. Peter had made peace with Russia thereby ending Frederick’s fear of Prussia’s destruction, which would have enhanced occupation of Frederick’s empire by enemies. The Treaty of Hubertusburg which was signed in 1763 ended the war. The agreements reached with this treaty were; Silesia remained a territory within Prussia and the borders that existed before the war did not have major changes. Prussia became a great power following victory in the war. William Pitt (1708-1778) was a secretary of state in Britain and a major architect in Britain’s strategies for victory in wars. He was often called William Pitt the Elder. He had immense knowledge in administration, which he used in attempts to secure North America (specifically the area lying east of River Mississippi). His strategy began with deployment of more than 40,000 troops in Canada to fight against the French. This was the largest number of troops to be released at once, in history. The military achieved a worldwide victory. His strategy also involved getting finances via sale of sugar and provision of labor by slaves in plantations (Donald, Ozment & Turner 486). The Enlightenment absolutism This phase refers to an era in the 18th century, when people in the west began realizing their rights. This was championed by the political ideas of philosophers who lived during that period. Several things are associated with this phase and these include; partition of Poland and the ideas of Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great and Joseph II. The enlightenment period came after the year 1700 when learned people in the west embarked on economic and political transformation (Donald, Ozment & Turner 492). This would be made possible by the Scientific Revolution which had occurred prior to the enlightenment era. Enlightenment absolutism refers to policies that were enacted by rulers of eastern and central Europe during the enlightenment period. The policies were meant to put government structures together so as to enhance governance, instead of having several split structures across the countries. The policies also championed for religious and economic transformations. Enlightened absolutism is a phrase used to signify a monarchy system of government which was only concerned with the wealthy people. Governance was in the hands of church, parliament and aristocrats. The Crisis of the French Monarchy This describes the problems associated with the French monarch and its unpopularity among the people. It is associated with Louis XIV, the nobles, Treaty of Paris and the partitioning of Poland. Louis XIV is widely known because of the wars that took place during his reign in France. He also made the clergy and the nobility to stay away from the National Assembly which had been created by the Third Estate (the poor) in France. Charter of the Nobility refers to the rights that the nobles of France made for themselves. These were meant to favor them and not all the citizens of France. However, they surrendered these rights later during a meeting with the national Constituent Assembly. Frederick II was known as a stubborn leader of his time who ruled with an iron fist. However, his efforts in wars and attempts to break up alliances stopped various powers from destroying Prussia (Donald, Ozment & Turner 517). This earned him the title “Frederick the Great.” Treaty of Paris (1763) involved signing of a peace agreement and it was led by the earl of Bute. It was meant to solve Britain’s issues to avoid further warfare. The following agreements were reached in the treaty; Britain got Canada, River Ohio valley and half of the eastern Mississippi valley under its influence. She abandoned her activities and influence in India’s Pondicherry as well as Chandernagore. She also gave back the sugar islands in West Indies to France. The Parlement refers to the law making body in France, which was based in Paris. It condemned Voltaire’s book and ordered for his arrest (Donald, Ozment & Turner 497). Joseph II of Austria he ruled Austria together with his mother, Maria Theresa from 1765 to 1780. He did not value humor in his speeches but he held high regard for reason. Catherine the Great of Russia was a Russian empress who ruled after her husband’s death. She preserved absolutism and made economic reforms by eliminating barriers to trade and enhancing export of goods. Promotion through merit is a phrase that means giving a person an opportunity to serve an organization or institution due to his or her qualifications. It is used in job promotions in a bid to reduce corruption and uphold integrity. It was used by Frederick II since he valued intellect. He promoted people to become nobles in his administration through their qualifications (Donald, Ozment & Turner 519). The Partition of Poland was caused by bad feelings on the side of Eastern Europe countries due to the military success of Russia. The military was a great supporter of Catherine the Great. Wars and social problems that came up with French revolution made Russia and Prussia to partition Poland yet again. Treaty of Kuchui-Kainardil (1774) is a peace treaty which was signed by Russia and Ottoman Empire in Bulgaria. It marked the end of Russo-Turkish Wars which occurred during the reign of Catherine the Great. Pugachev Rebellion (1774-1775) is a revolt that occurred in Russia after Catherine the Great ascended into the throne. It is named after Pugachev, its leader who aimed at ending servitude in Russia. Work Cited Donald, Kagan., Ozment, Steven., & Turner, Frank. The Western Heritage. Upper saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010. Print. Read More