The Extent to which Childrens Wellbeing is a Priority in Modern Western Societies - Literature review Example

Education The Extent to which Children’s Wellbeing is a Priority in Modern Western Societies ID Number Module and Number Name of Professor/ Tutor Date of Submission The Extent to which Children’s Wellbeing is a Priority in Modern Western Societies Introduction Relative poverty is prevalent among a large proportion of families with children, in member countries of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development). The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, 2000) data on comparative poverty levels reveal that “while the UK and the USA are among the wealthiest nations, they show high rates of relative poverty” (Lucas et al., 2008, p.2). In several developed countries, increasing inequality in both income and wealth is caused by the deregulation of markets and the consequent concentration of economic power states Weeks (2005). Inequalities have risen since the 1960s in the small group of OECD countries composed of the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand. Despite data on this group of countries revealing a change in the trend in the 1990s, overall the proportion of children living in relative poverty has expanded (UNICEF, 2005). Bradshaw and Mayhew’s (2005) comprehensive report on the physical, cognitive, behavioural and emotional wellbeing of children in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, provides wide-ranging data on the various aspects. In the European Union, in 2002-2003, the fifth highest rate of relative child poverty was found in the United Kingdom where 28% of children lived in households with incomes below fifty percent of the average, after allocating for housing costs. Darton et al. (2003) observe that compared to the situation one generation ago, current poverty in the United Kingdom is most prevalent in households with children. A systematic review of qualitative research conducted by Attree (2006), reinforces that from children’s own perspectives, despite their maximum efforts, any hopes of achieving an improved social and economic future grows increasingly dim. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the extent to which children’s wellbeing is a priority in present day western societies, and whether adequate measures are being implemented to address child poverty, abuse and health issues. Charting Children’s Well-Being in Modern Western Societies The Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted in 1989 formulated a new definition of childhood rooted in human rights. It called for the provision of essential goods and services towards the fulfillment of children’s rights to survival, health and education. The Convention also indicated “a growing recognition of the need to create a protective environment to shield children from exploitation, abuse and violence” (UNICEF, 2005, p.1). The harm caused by poverty, conflict, and HIV/ AIDS continues far beyond the years of childhood, raising the possibilities of the next generation being impacted by the same dangers, threatening the accomplishment of the Millennium Development Goals aiming for a “world fit for children” (UNICEF, 2005, p.1). Child Poverty in Advanced Industrialised Nations The findings presented by the Innocenti Report Card (UNICEF, 2000) reveals that the rates of child poverty in the world’s wealthiest nations range from 3% to over 25%; nearly 17% of the rich world’s children is living in poverty; and totally about 47 million children in the nations of the OECD live below the poverty lines of their nation. Further, “in the league table of relative child poverty, the bottom four places are occupied by the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States, and Mexico” (UNICEF, 2000, p.2). At the same time, in the league table of absolute child poverty, Spain, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland take up the four lowest positions. Brown (2012) argues that the indicators of child and youth wellbeing are crucial mechanisms for improving the lives of children. The main indicators of child wellbeing are in the areas of health, education, social and emotional development; while the social context indicators are related to the family, peers, school and the community. The indicators of child wellbeing serve to influence policy both at the state as well as at local levels, besides driving welfare reform, and guiding local planning. Collins and Foley (2008) reiterate the importance of establishing policy and practice to promote children’s wellbeing, and stress on the significance of place and physical environments. From the league table rankings, it is evident that the possibilities of a child living in poverty is four times greater in lone-parent families; and there is a close connection between child poverty rates and the percentage of households with children, where no adult is working. Moreover, child poverty rates are related to the “percentage of full-time workers who earn less than two-thirds of the national median wage” (UNICEF, 2000, p.2). The countries with the lowest child poverty rates such as Sweden, Norway, Luxembourg, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, etc. allocate the highest proportions of gross national product (GNP) to social expenditures. There is a greater likelihood of children who grow up in poverty to have “learning difficulties, to drop out of school, to resort to drugs, to commit crimes, to be out of work, to become pregnant at too early an age” (UNICEF, 2000, p.3), and to live lives that enforce their experience of poverty and disadvantage on succeeding generations who are unable to break free from its stronghold. Thus, most of the severe issues “facing today’s advanced industrialized nations have roots in the denial and deprivation that mark the childhoods of so many of their future citizens” (UNICEF, 2000, p.3). Attree (2006) conducted a review of studies on children living in material disadvantage, from the perspective of children’s own narratives. She found that the effects of poverty include profoundly adverse social outcomes besides the material lack of children in poor families. Thus, despite their greatest endeavours to increase their resources, “many poor children experience a gradual narrowing of their horizons, both socially and economically” (Attree, 2006, p.54). This is reiterated by Kassim et al. (2009) who add that teenagers are able to articulate how the deprivations of poverty impacted on their life chances. This is in alignment with the theory of the culture of poverty put forth by Lewis, 1966, who argued that children learned to accept a lesser life and to understand the means of living within its confines. The United Kingdom’s government is committed to reducing child poverty and related problems of social exclusion; hence children’s perspectives should be further investigated. Children’s Health in Relation to Family’s Economic Status Among reports presented by the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2008) commission on the social determinants of health, those on early childhood development indicate that inequality in socioeconomic resources lead to inequities in early childhood development, child health and well-being; and that investment in this area is crucial. Unequal distribution of resources significantly influence child health and wellbeing. The UNICEF (2007) report ranking the wellbeing of children in 21 wealthy countries places the United States and the United Kingdom nearly at the bottom of the list. In a wealthy society, though relative poverty does not prohibit access to essential resources such as water, shelter, or food, there are differences in health and life opportunities between the poorest and the richest sections (Wilkinson and Pickett, 2006). An example of the effects of relative poverty is found in infant mortality rates, which is higher in a city in the United States with its far greater level of national wealth, as compared to that of an urban region in a developing country. Relative poverty in high income countries adversely affects the life chances of children in several ways (HM Treasury, 2004). The “long shadow forward” conceptualized by Roberts (1997, p.1123) addresses the far reaching outcomes of poverty in early life. Severe or long term illnesses that affect the quality and length of life are found most commonly among people of the lowest social classes. The children from these groups are generally unable to accomplish their full potential in education, and later as adults are mostly unemployed or employed in unskilled, poorly paid manual jobs. Lower income levels even when temporary, also cause adverse health outcomes and higher mortality rates. Consequently, an effective intervention is raising the family income level, rather than undertake low-value, strictly conditional welfare reform, assert Lucas et al. (2008, p.17). The importance of a family’s income on child health appear to be extremely significant, besides the family’s access to resources. This is illustrated by the health chances of poor children in the United States of America being constrained by lack of access to health care as the main factor. Currie and Stabile’s (2003) comparisons of data between the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom indicate that the connection between health and wealth continues to be strong, though the universal health care provided by Canada and the UK may reduce the effects of growing up poor. The data suggest that factors within the country may affect the connection between health and income. Currie and Stabile (2005) undertook research in Canada, and their findings reveal that children from poorer backgrounds are more likely to be diagnosed with mental health problems in childhood. Similarly, oral health also differs according to the income gradient. Children from poorer families demonstrated higher rates of dental decay and lower levels of oral health as compared to wealthier children in the same country (Peterson, 2003). Thus, the aim of current United Kingdom government policy is to help around one million UK children rise out of poverty. Meeting the Needs for Child Protection From the latter half of the twentieth century, there has been increasing public awareness of child abuse, as well as a focus on related policy in most countries in western Europe and North America (Ennis, 2007). At the same time, there have been high levels of criticisms of the responses by public agencies of the child protection system. The vulnerability of children and the requirement for child protective services have been a concern since a long time; however, the “the modern phase of the discovery of child abuse is often attributed to the identification of ‘battered baby syndrome’”, states Ennis (2007, p.124). The seminal research study by Kempe et al. (1962), drew awareness to children’s bodily injuries. With the help of new radiological techniques they identified the injuries as the result of deliberate beatings inflicted on the child by parents or caregivers, and not as accidental outcomes as earlier misinterpreted. This was followed by increasing evidence and published works helping to expose the violent dimensions of family life, and indicated that far greater numbers of children are affected than earlier assumed. Later research has highlighted the causes of various forms of abuse, especially sexual and emotional. Thus child services are required to change their social, political and institutional approaches to addressing child protection and wellbeing. Increasing levels of poverty cause greater numbers of non-accidental child injury or death, according to Wedge and Prosser (1973). The probability of a child being injured or killed is related to stress, parental alcohol and substance abuse; all of which are closely associated with poverty. Thus, policies to prevent child abuse have to be formulated on the basis of anti-poverty measures. Together with awareness about child abuse, there is an increasing alertness to the possibilities of child neglect. Ennis (2007, p.125) observes that the “prolonged exposure to neglect seeps deeply into the very fibre of children and can imbue them with qualities of helplessness that can be very hard to shift”. The growing prevalence of parental substance misuse has been increasingly evident as a major reason for child abuse and neglect, including those of newborn children. The findings from research conducted by Rodning et al. (1991) reveal that only 18% of infants exposed to parental drug addiction showed secur attachment to their biological parents at 15 months, compared with 64% of a matched sample of infants not exposed to parental drug abuse. According to Ondersma et al. (2000), the ‘conflicting time clocks’ metaphor explains the immediacy of a young child’s developmental needs, which are adversely affected by the lengthy recovery time required by an addicted parent. Ondersma and Chase (2003) reiterate that this results in substance abuse causing 66% of referrals related to child wellbeing. NAIC (2003) reveals that 10% to 20% of children are at risk of exposure to domestic violence which has long-term profound impacts. Children’s personality and behavioural problems include “forms of psychosomatic illnesses, depression, suicidal tendencies, and bed-wetting” (UNICEF, 2006, p.7). These children grow up with greater tendencies for drug abuse, juvenile pregnancy, and criminal behaviour as compared to children brought up without exposure to domestic violence. Other potential harmful impacts are poor social development, increased aggression and tendency for violent behaviour. Conclusion This paper has highlighted children’s wellbeing in modern western societies, and investigated the extent to which it is a priority in present day industrialised nations. The evidence from research indicates that relative poverty and low levels of family income are directly related to increasing proportion of child poverty. It also exacerbates the likelihood of increased child abuse, neglect and exposure to domestic violence, which adversely impact the safe and adequate care of children. Similarly, educational attainment, social and emotional development, and health outcomes as well as mortality of children are found to be based on child poverty levels. The requirement to establish policy and practice to meet the crucial needs for children’s wellbeing for improving and optimising their development and life chances is being increasingly recognised. It is evident that by addressing the key factor of child poverty by raising family income levels through appropriate approaches, the hurdles to achieving children’s wellbeing related to abuse, domestic violence, health issues, and other factors can be removed to a great extent. It is concluded that with increasing awareness and research, there are various measures and governmental policies being planned and implemented to counter child poverty and its long term adverse consequences. Bibliography Attree, P. (2006). The social costs of child poverty: A systematic review of the qualitative evidence. 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