In What Context Do People Explore, Form and Express Their Sexuality - Literature review Example

In What Context Do People Explore, Form And Express Their Sexuality, And What Political, Historical And Cultural Conditions Do They Grapple With As They Do? Name: Institution: Date: Introduction We live in a world where human sexuality is a topic discussed in hushed tones and behind closed doors. People are ashamed to voice out their thoughts on human sexuality. In Kauth’s opinion, the media with time is bringing the conversation into people’s homes (2007). Parents have had to discuss the topic with their young children because sex is everywhere. Sexualized pictures of men and women are everywhere from magazines to advertisements as the media adopts the model of “sex sells”. In addition, the internet is a haven for sexual and explicit media and everyone has access to it. These recent developments have thrown human sexuality into the limelight. Despite people trying to avoid the topic, human sexuality is here to stay, and people should embrace it. Human sexuality, usually equated to sex, is the most heated topic of this age. In Bolin & Whelehan terms, human sexuality refers to the different ways people understand and express themselves as sexual beings (1999). Every human is a sexual being and has the ability to express themselves as such. In the past, human sexuality was treated with discretion and respect by people (Kauth, 2007). Sex, heterosexual sex for this matter, was only eligible to couple who were married. The thoughts of homosexuality, bisexuality, trans-sexual, transgender, inter-sexed and queer were non-existent. The aforementioned scenario is no longer present in the information age. In this age, any literate human can access information regarding sexuality from the comfort of their phones. This has led to the introduction of human sexuality as a topic in schools all over the civilized world. This essay will first tackle the exploration, formation, and expression of human sexuality. It will also analyze the controversy and issues surrounding those people society regards as abnormal in their expression of sexuality. Body Majority of us considers themselves experts in matters concerning human sexuality. However, no one claim to be an expert in this topic due to its subjective and dynamic nature. Human sexuality forms an integral part in the formation of one’s identity and their interactions with people of both sexes (Francoeur & Taverner, 2000). Human sexuality is the way through which people experience and respond to erotic experiences. From a Biblical perspective, procreation is the responsibility of every human being (Kauth, 2007). This religious belief and many others, consequently make human sexuality a vital part in everyone’s lives. Despite their age, gender or nationality, human sexuality dictates the identity of people and their action. Prior to the recent attention human sexuality has had, development policies and practices have ignored this topic. Frayser & Whitby argue that the emergence of HIV and AIDS, however, brought human sexuality into the limelight (1995). Societys only solution in curbing its spread was to tackle sexuality boldly. Sexuality influences an individual’s concept of self throughout their lives. Sexuality further determines the individual’s gender identities and roles, their sexual orientation, intimacy, pleasure and reproduction (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). Individuals can express their sexuality through several avenues. The avenues include a person’s thoughts, practices, behaviours, attitudes, roles and relationships. However, people at times are not allowed to express themselves through the listed avenues (Kauth, 2007). Social, economic, political, and cultural factors are some of the reasons that hamper people’s expression of their real sexual identities. Bolin & Whelehan concede that sexuality becomes a defining moment in people’s lives once they reach their adolescence years (2010). It is during these years that people start developing and exploring their sexual identities. The sexual interest among individuals varies greatly depending on their chosen sexual identity. Sexual activity, often an expression of sexuality, has many risks that are mainly sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancies. The latter is often an issue for young adolescents who are emotionally immature and not financially able (Kauth, 2007). Adolescence is a time when the issues surrounding sexual expression are important and life-changing. Sexual expression, nevertheless, is not restricted to this phase as humans are sexual throughout their existence. This means that the sexual expression can take various forms throughout a person’s lives. Addressing the sexuality issue is difficult for almost everyone. Not everyone is comfortable with discussing sexuality matters with their children, spouses or mates. However, in order to enjoy fulfilling sexual lives one has to discuss this important subject (Bolin & Whelehan, 2010). We did not invent sex; it has been around for ages. Our existence is due to sex and, therefore, sex should not be a shameful subject. Today’s media has accelerated the speed at which young people explore their sexuality. Bolin & Whelehan continue to assert that programs that support homosexuality and bisexuality air side by side with the normal programs (2010). This programming makes the young generations explore many forms of sexual identities which was previously unthinkable. Every human can explore their sexuality, be it heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual. Bisexuality, a middle ground for adopted by either sex as they explore the extents of their sexuality. The term “bi-curious” comes into mind as people try to explore their sexuality (Murphy, 1997). The human mind is curious, and it is normal for someone to explore every form of sexuality in order to settle for one that is comfortable. Persons with high sex-drives are more inclined to explore bi-sexuality as it adds variety in their sexual lives. As mentioned earlier, today’s mass media revolves on violence and sex. Its obsession with sex preys on the curious nature of young people ultimately leading them to engage in sex (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). Media’s important task is to teach people the norms in society and not feed the curiosity of young people’s minds. However, nowadays young people are spoilt for choice when it comes to entertainment. They can select the media source that satisfies their curiosity, and this inadvertently helps them in forming their opinions regarding their sexual identities. Young people, during their adolescence phase, experience erotic feelings for others. These feelings push them to explore and experiment with their selves and others. Exploration and experimentation, according to Kauth, often happens contrary to what traditions have taught them; that sex is for reproduction purposes only, and it is only among married couples (2007). Sexuality is a powerful force that defines people from their birth till death. Sexual development and behaviour are nowadays more evident than they were in the past. Several incidences have brought the issue of sexuality into the global spotlight. In 2005, the government of Iran sentenced two 16 and 18 year old boys to death for claims that they were homosexuals. Another incidence is the murder of Brian Williams, a gay rights activist in Jamaica, in 2004 (Jamaica Gleaner 2004). The first Gay Pride Event in Serbia did not occur due to attacks from Serbian nationalists (CNN 2010). The hate, stigma and prejudice gays and lesbians face are insurmountable and is the cause for all above actions (Habib, 2012). Despite people’s wishes, not everyone will have the same sexual desire. Conservative societies are slowly accepting this fact. The attacks against gays, lesbians and others are innumerable and continue to this day. People experience sexuality differently resulting into variations in their sexual expression. Anthropological and historical research and studies have described the various sexual variations present expressed by humans (Francoeur & Taverner, 2000). The sexual nature and vibrancy of young people result into sexual diversity among them. People, however, regard sexual diversity as a threat and admonish it. In addition, they impose their morality on sexuality and brand it various names to repress its acceptance. People brand sex as pleasant or unpleasant, good or bad, and healthy or unhealthy. The Human Rights Conventions, nevertheless, does not associate sex with morals (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). According to them, sexuality is a right and urges people to be accepting of other people’s sexuality. Society should not regard sexual diversity as a vice rather they should embrace it. It is a positive force in society as people are able to fully express themselves without prejudice or stigma (Francoeur & Taverner, 2000). Society, furthermore, should adopt a tolerant stance in regards to people’s sexuality. Variation in sexuality adds more colour, freedom and opportunities to society as people are able to dictate their own destinies and sexual identities. Sexual exploration leads to sexual orientation and the formation of sexual identity. Sexual orientation, on the other hand, describes the sexual preference one has. A heterosexual orientation occurs when a man prefers women and when a woman prefers men (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). On the other hand, homosexual orientation is when individuals prefer members of the same sex. In the case where an individual is attracted to members of both sexes, the orientation is bisexual. The people who practice heterosexuality face no challenges in their orientation as society favours this orientation (Bolin & Whelehan, 2010). However, their homosexual and bisexual counterparts are not afforded the same courtesy. Society regards these orientations as unnatural and peculiar and admonishes their practice. Homosexuality and bisexuality are among the varieties present in the sexuality spectrum (Murphy, 1997). People often deny and view this practice as unnatural and admonish it every time. However, this practice is not new because it is evident throughout the history of mankind. Besides, there are people in every country who practice it. People in different cultures express and perceive homosexuality differently. People in various cultures practice same-sex sexuality differently. Not all cultures tolerate and accept homosexuality and these results in different ways in expressing this sexuality (Murphy, 1997). Majority of the world’s cultures are conservative and deny the existence of same-sex sexuality in their midst. These conservative cultures such as the Muslims, staunch Christians treat gay and lesbian individuals with hostility at times going to the extent of killing them (Habib, 2012). This attitude results in sexual and mental health problems among young people attracted to people of the same sex. People who often assume the homosexuality identity are not always attracted to members of the same sex. Some adopt the identity so as to explore their sexual curiousness and keep their sexual options open. Furthermore, those in jails adopt the identity due to the constricting nature of this environment (Dynes & Donaldson, 1992). The degree of attraction to members of the same sex varies greatly in individuals. The attraction to individuals of the same gender is present in all cultures, and it often determines whether one adopts the homosexuality identity. Homosexuals are people, and they are as diverse as people. They are present in all ethnic, racial, cultural, socio-economic, and age groups (Murphy, 1997). There is no individual group or culture that should be stereotyped as having homosexual tendencies (Crickey 2014). The numbers of homosexuals differ due to the different ways used in defining sexual orientation. Bolin & Whelehan argue that there are three defining characteristics that define sexual orientation. The first is the feelings of desires towards individuals of the same sex. These feelings of desire might be weak or strong; however, not everyone acts on them (2010). The feelings might fade with time or become persistent causing one to question their sexuality. Second, a person’s sexual behaviour is a gauge used to identify his or her sexual orientation. Besides, sexual orientation is dictated by the sexual behaviour of an individual (Bolin & Whelehan, 2010). The partner in these sexual behaviours does not dictate the sexual orientation of an individual. This behaviour, as stated earlier, can either fade over time or become persistent. Sexual behaviours that occur in closed environments such as prisons are often as a result of opportunity and not sexual orientation (Frayser & Whitby, 1995). Last but not least, homosexuality can be as a result of self-identification. People are inclined, as a result of society, to become heterosexuals. In most of the cases homosexuals rarely self-identify in public about their sexual orientation. People who self-identify as homosexuals, more often than not, have experimented and practiced sex with same-sex individuals. Alfred Kinsey, an American sex researcher, conceded that society is not a discrete population (Kinsey, Pomerov & Martin, 1948). Society does not comprise of two sets of individuals but a continuum inclusive of everyone despite their sexual orientations. Sexual orientation of individuals is bound to change over time, and it becomes constant in the adult phase. There are several factors and myths that surround sexual identity and orientation. One popular myth is the existence of a gay gene that causes individuals to be homosexuals (Murphy, 1997, p. 22). Several scientific studies such as the one by Bailey & Pillard (1991) have found that there is a mild chance genetics has on influencing whether a person is homosexual or not. The levels of certain hormones and the size of certain parts of the brain are some of the biological factors investigated to know the cause of homosexuality. The results from Bailey & Pillard’s research are inconclusive and do not verify the role genetics and biology have on sexual orientation. Other biological studies such as the eye colour, height and the study of twins have all been inconclusive in their findings (Bolin & Whelehan, 2010). However, there are various factors that have directly influenced the choice of homosexuality in individuals. The family, regarded as society’s basic unit, heavily influences the people’s choice to become homosexuals (Murphy, 1997). Majority of gay men exhibit two common characteristics, first they had fathers who were less loving and they had closer relationships with their mothers. The study of twins also supports this study; its results show that if one twin is gay the other twin has a high likelihood to adopt the same sexuality (Bolin & Whelehan 2010). Furthermore, men who were in same-sex marriages shared several familial characteristics. The characteristics include the men being the youngest in a divorced family, the absence of fathers and the presence of older mothers who are often negligent in parenting. Women in same-sex marriages, on the other hand, either experienced the death of their mothers during their adolescence or they were the only child in their families (Bolin & Whelehan, 2010). Urbanization is another factor that affects the adoption of homosexuality by young adults. Living in large cities provides an environment where the expression of homosexuality is acceptable (Murphy, 1997). Large cities provide various spots and venues where people of a specific sexual orientation congregate. In his research, Throckmorton conceded that a country like Denmark, people living in urban areas were more likely to marry homosexually than their rural counterparts (2006). Culture also plays a vital role in the determination of sexual orientation. In Dynes & Donaldson’s book (1992), ancient civilizations such as the Assyrian and the Graeco-Roman tolerated the practice of homosexuality (p. 49). The United States of America is an example of a modern society that tolerates homosexuality and it is no longer a taboo (Norc 2014). This lifting of the homosexuality taboo encourages people to explore and express their sexuality (Whitaker, 2006, p.2). Hollywood since the late 1990s has integrated homosexuality in its productions. This integration is still perpetuated in today’s production and shows the accepting nature of the American society. Sexuality plays a vital role in the distribution of power in the Middle East. The hierarchies in Middle Eastern societies adopt their structures based on sexuality (Habib, 2012). That is, adult men assume the dominant social positions while women, boys and slaves are the subordinate socially. Sexuality in the Middle Eastern context does not bear any resemblance to the Western’s definition of the term. Sexuality in the Middle East is intertwined with power and politics while in the West it is a form of human expression. Islam, the religion for the Middle East, dictates that both genders should only partake in heterogonous relationships (Whitaker, 2006). All other forms of sexual expression are illicit. These traditions have been practiced since the 7th century and over the years nothing has changed In Egypt, a physician claimed that the country should not regard HIV and AIDs and other STDs as major concerns. According to him, his citizens do not practice homosexuality and prostitution (Habib, 2012). The Moroccan society is no different; homosexuality relations are attributed to the low levels of employment in the country. Employment, in this society, provides one with the means to partake in marriage and other illicit sexual relations. These societies fail to view and regard homosexuality for what it is, a form of sexual expression and not as a result of lack of employment. Homosexuality in countries such as Turkey, Egypt and Magrib is the exertion of male dominance over other males (Habib, 2010). These societies do not regard sexual relations between two men as homosexuality but as an expression of hyper-masculinity. The men are substitutes to women and the masculine men have no feelings of affection for them, rather they have contempt for them. These societies are hyper-masculine, and equality in sexual relations threatens this order (Habib, 2010). Over the years, homophobic violence has been on the rise. Iran is popular for its stand on homosexuality and other forms of sexuality expression that are not the norm. The Islamic regime led by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad denies the lifestyles of the gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people in the state. Iranians punish, bully and kill people who practice these forms of sexual expression. Iranians who participate in same-sex sexual relations face persecution, exile or death sentences due to their sexual orientations (Whitaker, 2006). Iranians who are homosexuals hide their identities through secret online forums to discuss the stigma and prejudice they face in their country. Despite the existence of homosexual communities in the country, the country tries its best to suppress their popularity and opinions. The death sentence hangs over everyone who practices homosexuality in countries such as Iran and Iraq (Habib, 2012). The punishment of people who participated in consensual same-sex sexual relations is lower compared to previous years. Nowadays, the culprit who was in the active role is flogged 100 times while the one who was in a passive role is sentenced to death. This subjective form of punishment for these individuals is in support of the hyper-masculine nature of Iran’s society. Lesbianism, on the other hand, attracts a similar punishment and if the culprits repeat the act more than four times they face the death sentence (Habib, 2012). Iran in 1987 legalized trans-sexuality and sex-change operations to curb the spread of homosexuality. Homosexual children are forced to undergo sex-changes to remove the shame ascribed to this sexual orientation (Whitaker, 2006). Iranian psychologists and psychiatrists regard homosexuality as a mental illness that is treatable through sex-changes and other prescribed cures. Transsexuals in this society also face stigma and transphobic abuse despite the legalization of this sexual orientation (Whitaker, 2006). Iraq is also another Middle Eastern state that has strict laws regarding homosexuality. Despite the invasion by the US, homosexuality is still a controversial topic in this country. The amendment of the 1990 Penal Code of 2001 made homosexuality a crime in the country (Habib, 2012). Saddam Hussein used this amendment to gain the support of Islamic conservatives during his reign over the country. Participation in same-sex sexual relations also translates to death. The Iraqi constitution offers protection to people who face discrimination in matters such as sex, belief, religion, opinion, economic status and social (Habib, 2010). The constitution fails to mention homosexuality that faces more discrimination than the others. The constitution also allows the killing of others in the context of saving the family’s honour. Habib (2010) further states that people who kill their family members in the allegations of homosexuality do not face prosecution (p. 31). Homosexuality policies have headlined the news from the beginning 2014. Two African states Uganda and Nigeria have enacted anti-gay bills that consider homosexuality a crime in both states. The passing of these bills has dented the acceptance of homosexuality as a valid form of sexual expression in those countries. Furthermore, these homophobic actions by Uganda and Nigeria increase the chances of the same happening in other countries. The United States of America and other Western States such as Canada, U.K, France and Germany are the only countries that have admonished these acts against homosexuality. According to Wasamu (2014), they have threatened to stop financially supporting Uganda and Nigeria and proposed to impose other sanctions. The UN made it clear at the beginning of the 21st century that homosexuality rights are human rights. By denying homosexuals, their right to express their sexuality, denies them their human rights. Conclusion Homosexuality and sexuality overall is a controversial topic, and this will continue for a while. The laws enacted by countries such as Iran and Iraq hamper the acceptance of homosexuality in society (Whitaker, 2006, p.73). By restricting and outlawing homosexuality, these countries are also admonishing sexual exploration and expression. Homosexuals are humans no less than heterosexuals and can contribute to society in the same measure. A person’s sexual orientation should not cost him his job, social status or life. Homophobia is a hate crime that should be fined by jail time or any other appropriate punishment. In conclusion, countries such as Nigeria, Uganda and Iran should adopt better laws and policies on sexual expression and orientation. The acceptance of homosexuals does not compromise their religious and conservative nature of these countries rather it compliments them. Bibliography Bailey, J. and Pillard, R. (1991). A genetic study of male sexual orientation. Archives of general psychiatry, 48(12), p.1089-1096. Bolin, a., & Whelehan, p. (1999). Perspectives on human sexuality, 18th edn, Albany, State University of New York Press. Bolin.A, &Whelehan. P, (2010), Human Sexuality: Biological, Psychological, and Cultural Perspectives, Routledge. CNN.com, (2014). Serbia gay pride march attacked with bombs, stones - CNN.com. 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