Respiratory, Endocrine, Urinary Systems - Coursework Example

Coursework: Lab report 1. Histology: Tissues There are various tissues in the body. One of such tissues is epithelial tissue (Human Biology, n.d.). The epithelial tissue provides cover to body surface and forms the lining for most of the body openings (Human Biology, n.d.). The covering and lining help the body in various ways. One of the organs covered by the tissue is the skin. As a result, the body is protected from dirt, dust, bacteria and other agents that may be harmful. The cells are in different shapes with some being thin, flat, cubic, and elongated. The connective tissue is extends in various parts of the body. As a result, the tissue plays many functions in the body. Some of the functions include support and protection (Human Biology, n.d.). Some of the connective tissues include fat tissue, dense fibrous tissue, bone, blood, and lymph. There are different types of muscle tissue in the body. They include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. The skeletal tissue helps contraction of skeletal parts in the body (Human Biology, n.d.). The movement of the muscle is voluntary. On the other hand, smooth muscles are found prominently in the internal organ and blood vessels, and it is involuntary (Human Biology, n.d.). Additionally, the cardiac muscle is only located in the walls of the heart (Human Biology, n.d.). The muscle is also involuntary. Nerve tissue also plays a vital role in the body. The nerve tissue comprise of specialized cells (Human Biology, n.d.). The tissue receives stimuli and conduct impulse to and from different parts of the body (Human Biology, n.d.). In conclusion, it is clear that tissues play significant roles in the body. The functions range from support, protection, movement, and communication in the body. 2. Classification of Body Membranes The microscope helps in clear observation of components of the cutaneous membrane. The outer layer of the membrane appears covered with a tough fibrous structure. Moreover, there are some small pores on the surface of the membrane. Moreover, the cells appear to be organized in layers. On the other hand, the mucous membrane appears covered by fluid on the surface. Moreover, the surface appears covered by tiny protruding structures. Moreover, the cells appear longitudinal in shape. The synovial membrane is found in various joints in the body(Buzzle, 2014). The membrane comprises soft tissue that lines non-cartilaginous surfaces with joints that have opening (Buzzle, 2014). The membrane usually is bi-layered. The outer layer is known as subintima while the inner layer is known as intima (Buzzle, 2014). The outer layer of the membrane is loose, and the inner layer is located above the pliable membrane (Buzzle, 2014). In conclusion, the microscopy helps in identifying some of the major components of the membranes. Moreover, the structures organization appears linked to the adaptation of the membranes. 3. Joints and Body Movements The joint exist in a region where two or more bones comes together (Singh, 2008). One of the joints is fibrous joint. The joints are usually rigid and hence no movement can occur between the bones. The rigidity is due to the availability of collagen fibers. Some of these joints are found in coronal sutures and teeth (Singh, 2008). The other joints are cartilaginous joints. The joints exhibit slight form of movement. The joints are also known as ampharthroses (Singh, 2008). The other joints are the synovial joints. The joint is movable and found between the limb bones. The end of the bones in joints is covered with articular cartilage (Singh, 2008). The cartilages are of the essence in providing smooth and elastic surface that helps in reduction of friction. Moreover, the cavity between the two bones helps in free movement. Body movement in animals takes place through aid of muscles. Skeletal muscles play almost all roles in the body movements (Singh, 2008). However, other muscles help in movement. On the other hand, there exist a relationship between bones, joints, and muscles. In the body, joints exist as two or more bones come together while muscles are attached to bones (Singh, 2008). In conclusion, joints help in stabilization of the body. Moreover, they play a significant role in helping proper movement by an individual. 4. Organization of Nervous Tissue Lab Multipolar neurons have only one axon. Moreover, the neuron has one or more dendritic parts appearing from all parts of the cell body (Unam, n.d.). On the other hand, the cell in the neuron varies in number and length of their dendrites and the length of their axons (Unam, n.d). The branching and number of dendrites depend on the number of synaptic interactions that other neurons make on it (Unam, n.d). All neurons have basic components. One of such structures is the dendrites that help in establishing contacts with other neurons. The other component is the cell body that helps in metabolic function of a cell (Unam, n.d). Moreover, there is the axon that helps in conduction of impulse. In addition, the axon has a terminal known as presynaptic terminals (Unam, n.d). The neurologia and other support cells lack axon. As a result, they only play subsidiary roles in the nervous system. Moreover, a nerve occurs after conglomeration of several axon. All nerves have an outer covering known as the epineurium (Unam, n.d). Nerves comprise of several nerve fibers. The brain is comprised of six parts. The large part of the brain is composed of cerebrum (Solly, 2006). The section has two cerebral hemispheres. All higher mental functions are controlled in the cerebrum (Solly, 2006). The other section of the brain is the cerebellum. It constitutes of grey matter on the outside and white matter on the inside (Solly, 2006). The main function is controlling of body movement and maintenance of body balance. The other part is the medulla oblongata. The section is located above the spinal cord. The role of the section is to regulate and coordinate all involuntary actions (Solly, 2006). In addition, there is the pituitary gland. The gland secretes several hormones that control vital body functions (Solly, 2006). The other section comprises of hypothalamus. The main function of the section is to control body temperature, homeostatic function, sexual activities, thirst, hunger, emotional activity, and sleep (Solly, 2006). The last section is the thalamus. The section helps in awareness of the impulse. A dissection of the sheep brain reveals several parts of the brain. First, the examination of the exterior part of the brain reveals meninges, the dura mater, the arachnoid layer, and the pia mater (Sheep Brain Dissection Guide, n.d.). Additionally, the brain stem of the dissection reveals pons, medulla, and cerebellum. Moreover, the ventral surface helps one in identifying the olfactory bulbs. Moreover, the midsaggital cut reveals lateral ventricles, third ventricles, the cerebral duct, and the tegmentum (Sheep Brain Dissection Guide, n.d.). The frontal cut reveals the basal ganglia. Cranial nerves are related to the CNS (Solly, 2006). Human being has 12 pairs of cranial nerves (Solly, 2006). The nerves are responsible for the different senses of the body. They are more specialized as compared to spinal nerves. On the other hand, spinal cord plays a significant role in the human body. The cord originates at the base of the brain and ends at the lower part of the thoracic spine (Solly, 2006). Moreover, spinal cord has nerves known as spinal nerves. The nerves leave the cord between two successive vertebrae (Solly, 2006). In conclusion, the nervous system plays a significant role in the human body. As a result, without the system the body cannot function properly as there will be poor coordination and response. Write a brief essay in which you do the following: An intricate relationship exists between taste and smell. For example, certain molecules stimulate the chemoreceptor responsible for sense of smell and taste. Once the receptors get stimulated, a message is sent to the brain and end up producing the sensation of smell and taste (Society for Neuroscience, 2012). Additionally, the perceptions that human perceive taste is usually ill informed. For example, most of what is believed to be taste is the smell of molecules. Additionally, the loss of smell is also likely to trigger a loss of taste (Society for Neuroscience, 2012). For example, when one gets sick, it is usually difficult to taste food as mostly the nose is blocked. A blind spot or optic disc is that part of the retina where the optic nerves enters has no rods or cones (Besharse & Bok, 2011). The visual afterimages are because of the physical aspect of the eye. The defect occurs due to an object or an image that has been viewed by a person’s field of vision even after a long period not being exposed to it (Besharse & Bok, 2011). Relationships exist between hearing and balance. The relationship is because the ear is responsible for the sense of equilibrium. In the ear, there are canals responsible for detecting changes in the movement of the body (Neurophysiology, n.d.). The canals make changes in the body in case of distraction ensure that balance is maintained in the body (Neurophysiology, n.d.). As a result, without equilibrium in the body, the body cannot be able to balance. 5. Endocrine System The endocrine system plays a significant role in coordination of body activities (Carter, 2004). The function is carried out together with the nervous system. The system relies on hormones. Additionally, the blood transports the hormones. Once transported by the blood, the hormone acts on target cells through the receptors (Carter, 2004). One of the important components of the system is the pituitary gland. The gland secretes a variety of hormones that triggers changes on other endocrine glands (Carter, 2004). Some of the hormones secreted by the gland include follicle stimulating hormone and anti-diuretic hormone. The hormones are vital in female menstrual cycle and regulation of water, in the kidney (Carter, 2004). In addition, there is the thyroid gland. The gland produces hormones that influence body temperature and metabolism (Carter, 2004). Another essential section is the parathyroid gland. The gland secretes a hormone that maintains the calcium level in the blood (Carter, 2004). In addition, the system has thymus gland. The gland helps in the body immune system (Carter, 2004). The growth of the gland is prominent in childhood state but declines as one age. Moreover, the system has adrenal gland. The glands secrete hormones that influence the body’s metabolism, characteristics, and blood composition (Carter, 2004). Moreover, the glands influence the nervous system that takes care of response and defense mechanism. In addition, the system has pancreas and gonads. The pancreas secretes hormones responsible for homeostatic control while gonad secretes hormones that influence male and female characteristics (Carter, 2004). 6. Blood Blood is one of the major fluids in the body. Blood is always in constant circulation in the body. As a result, it plays a vital role in transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste. Blood is liquid in nature and has numerous cells and proteins (Franklin Institute, 2014). In a normal individual, the amount of blood is five liters (Franklin Institute, 2014). Blood is composed of cells known as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The other component of blood is liquid plasma. On the other hand, there are four blood types. The types are A, B, AB, and O (Franklin Institute, 2014). Heart Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart (Saladin, n.d.). Cardiac muscle has striations just like the skeletal muscles. The muscle is joined together via linkages called intercalated discs (Saladin, n.d.). The discs have electrical gap junctions and this helps the myocyte in stimulating its neighbors (Saladin, n.d.). Moreover, the gap helps help the muscles in pulling the heart once the heart contracts. On the other hand, the muscle lacks satellite cells. Moreover, the muscle contract on its own without relying on the nervous system (Saladin, n.d.). There are two circuits in the heart. The two are known as the pulmonary and systemic circuit (Saladin, n.d.). The pulmonary circuit carries blood with no oxygen while the systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood (Chun & Go, n.d.). A dissection of the sheep heart reveals several features. One of the features is opening on the left and right side of the heart. Moreover, there is a thick structure dividing the two ventricles. Moreover, one observes some of the major valves of the heart such as the semi-lunar valves. Additionally, one section of the wall appears thicker as compared to the other. Describe Blood Vessels The blood vessels are made up of three distinct layers (Interactive Physiology, n.d.). The layers are known in general term as tunics. The inside layer is known as tunic intima. The function of the layer is to provide a smooth surface to reduce friction with the blood for smooth flow (Interactive Physiology, n.d.). The middle layer is known as tunica media (Interactive Physiology, n.d.). It is mostly smooth muscle and flexible. The muscle helps in regulating the size of blood vessels for vasoconstriction or vasodilation. The outer layer is known as tunica adventitia. The layer is strong and helps in strengthening the vessel (Interactive Physiology, n.d.). The fetal pig has considerable arteries and veins. The arteries include carotid arteries, umbilical arteries, and subclavian arteries (Dissection Exercise, n.d.). On the other hand, the main veins include internal jugular veins, external jugular veins, and portal veins. 7. Anatomy of the Respiratory System The respiratory system begins at the nose. The nose comprises of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin (Taylor, 2013). It supports and protects the fore of nasal cavity (Taylor, 2013). On the other hand, the nasal cavity comprised of a hollow space within the nose and skull. The other part is the pharynx. In addition, there is a trachea also known as windpipe. The section connects the larynx to the bronchi and helps in the air passage (Taylor, 2013). At the end of the trachea are the bronchi. The bronchi again branches to form the bronchioles. The section also acts as a route for air passages and entry into the blood. The other essential component is the lung. There are two pairs of lung. The two are surrounded by pleural membrane (Taylor, 2013). Moreover, muscles surround the lungs. The muscles help in inhalation and exhalation of the air. In a normal respiratory tissue, the level of oxygen in the blood is at the required capacity. However, when the respiratory tissue gets some form of deformity, the amount of oxygen reaching the blood is not sufficient to support body functions. Moreover, the rate of removing carbon dioxide from the body is also affected. On the other hand, the lung is divided into conducting and respiratory zones (Antranik, 2011). The respiratory zone comprises of the bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs (Antranik, 2011). The zone allows for gaseous exchange to all parts of the body. The conducting zone is responsible for defense, regulating air and offers low resistance to airflow. The zone comprises the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles (Antranik, 2011). The fetal pig lungs are firmer at birth as compared to other lungs that are spongy during birth (Pitt, n.d.). Moreover, the lungs are covered with pleura. Moreover, the trachea branches to form two branches of bronchi that enter the lungs (Pitt, n.d.). On the other hand, the cartilage forms a c-shape when observed with band lens. In conclusion, the respiratory structure appears arranged to depend on their functions. Moreover, the structures are well adapted for their functions. High altitude exercise and respiration Currently, athletes prefer to train in high altitude locations. Most of the athletes believe this will provide them with a competitive advantage to their opponents. An exposure to higher altitude increases the athlete’s capacity to exercise (San, T et al., 2013). Exposing the body to high altitudes helps it to get used to the lower level of oxygen available in the atmosphere. Consequently, getting used helps in improving the delivery of oxygen to the muscles (San, T et al., 2013). However, there are effects on respiration due to the form of training. Higher altitude training has an effect on respiration. For example, the rate of oxygen uptake is faster and deeper while carbon dioxide is removed at a faster rate (San, T et al., 2013). On the other hand, the amount of exercise determines the carbon dioxide released by the body. For example, during exercise there is consumption of more amount of oxygen as compared when one is in the rest. Consequently, consumption of increased amount of oxygen leads to increased production of carbon dioxide due to increased metabolic rate (San, T et al., 2013). 8. Digestion One of the digestive system organs is the mouth. Digestion begins in the mouth and is associated with a mechanical breakdown (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). In the mouth, there are salivary glands that help in digestion of food. The other organ is the esophagus. It acts as a long tube made up of rings of cartilage. It helps in the movement of food through a process of peristalsis (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). In the end, there is an opening known as sphincter that opens into stomach. In the stomach, food is stored temporarily being mixed and liquidized (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The other organ is the liver/gall bladder. The organ is responsible for bile secretion that helps in food breakdown. The other organ is the pancreas. It helps in digestion of food through release of enzymes responsible for food breakdown (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The other organs are small and large intestines. These are responsible for breakdown and absorption of nutrients (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The last section is the anus responsible for excretion of feces (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). An overview of the human digestive organs begins from mouth to esophagus, then stomach to liver, pancreas to small and large intestine and then anus (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). There are various digestive enzymes in human. The first is salivary amylase located in the mouth. The enzyme helps in initial breakdown of starch (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The other enzymes are amylase, protease, and lipase secreted by pancreas. The enzymes help in the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). In the small intestines, amylase breaks down carbohydrates/starch into glucose (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). On the other hand, lipase helps in the breakdown of fats/lipids into triglycerides. In conclusion, the digestive system helps in the breakdown of food for the provision of nutrients in the body. 9. The Urinary System Under the microscope, one observes several structures of the urinary system. The structures include medulla, cortex, collecting ducts, medullary ray, blood vessels, corpuscles, and tubules (Yale, n.d.). Sheep kidney is usually covered with the adipose tissue. Once it is dissected, several structures are observed. The structures include renal capsule, renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pyramid, renal pelvis, renal column, renal calyx and ureter. The kidney plays a vital role in excretion. The process is achieved by various structures of the kidney. One of such structures is the nephron. The structure acts as a structural and functional unit of the kidney (Yale, n.d.). The components of the nephron are renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule (Yale, n.d.). Renal corpuscle helps in the filtration of plasma (Yale, n.d.). It has two sections; the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. Moreover, the first section of the renal tubule is known as the proximal convoluted tubules. In this section, most of the glomerular filtrate takes place. It is this section that later becomes a loop of Henle (Yale, n.d.). The section helps in creating a high osmotic pressure. Moreover, there is distal convoluted tubule. The section helps in re-absorption and secretion of ions. The other structure is juxtaglomerular apparatus (Yale, n.d.). The apparatus helps in secretion of rennin that is of the essence in regulating systemic blood pressure (Yale, n.d.). Moreover, there are collecting ducts that merge to form pelvis and ureter. The other section is urinary bladder and urethra. The bladder helps in the collection of urine while urethra carries urine (Yale, n.d.). In conclusion, excretion is a vital process that is well accomplished by the kidney. Urinalysis Physical and chemical analysis of urine is vital. The color of urine is usually light yellow to amber (Rayat, 2008). However, the color is usually determined by the amount of solute. Moreover, the smell is slightly aromatic once it is fresh. Additionally, when it is normal, it is transparent or clear. The pH ranges from 4.5 to 8.0 while the average is 6.0 (Rayat, 2008). In addition, the gravity varies from 1.010 to 1.025 (Rayat, 2008). On the other hand, urine is composed of several chemicals. The chemicals include 96% water, 4% solid, urea, uric acid, creatinine, and salts (Rayat, 2008). In conclusion, understanding chemical and physical properties of urine may help in understanding the health of an individual. 10. The Reproductive System Human has two testes. Testes are comprised of two testicles. The scrotum holds the testes (Baggott, 1997). The outer layer is thin and wrinkled skin. Moreover, testicles are located inside the scrotum where they produce millions of sperms in a male’s lifetime (Baggott, 1997). The reproductive part in female is known as the ovary (Baggott, 1997). It produces the sex cells known as the ova. Human has two pair of ovaries. The ovaries produce sex cells and hormones (Baggott, 1997). The fetal pig has various reproductive structures. The male has penis, bulbourethral gland, urethra, testis, epididymis, and vas deferens (Saint Anselm College, 2012). On the other hand, the female has ovary, uterine horn, uterus, and vagina. Pregnancy occurs from fertilization until birth (Baggott, 1997). Therefore, it can be described as events that take place from fertilization until the baby is born. Initially, the embryo develops in the human body for a period of two weeks (Baggott, 1997). As a result, the stage is known as pre-embryonic development. The next period is known as embryonic period (Baggott, 1997). The period lasts from 3rd week through 8th week after fertilization (Baggott, 1997). After this period, the fetal period takes over and extends from the 9th week until birth (Baggott, 1997). The entity at this period is known as a fetus. In conclusion, majority of reproductive structures in animals are similar. Moreover, a reproductive structure plays a significant role in regeneration of animals. References Antranik. (2011). The Respiratory System. Retrieved from http://antranik.org/the-respiratory-system/ Baggott, L. (1997). Human Reproduction. New York: Cambridge University Press. Besharse, J & Bok, D. (2011). The Retina and Its Disorders. New York: Academic Press. Buzzle. (2014). Synovial Membrane. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/synovial-membrane.html Carter, S. (2004). Endocrine System. Retrieved from http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/endocrin.htm Chun, V & Go, D. (n.d.). Pulmonary Circulation and Systemic Circulation. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/MadeleineSi/pulmonary-systemic-circulation-10655449 Dissection Exercise. (n.d.). Fetal Pig II. Retrieved from http://coursecontent.nic.edu/klchamberlain/biol175kc/LabContent/LM_Exercises_pdf/12_Fetal_Pig_II.pdf Franklin Institute. (2014). Blood. 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(n.d.). Cardiac and Smooth Muscle. Retrieved from https://www.inkling.com/read/anatomy-and-physiology-kenneth-saladin-6th/chapter-11/cardiac-and-smooth-muscle San, T et al. (2013). Effects of High Altitude on Sleep and Respiratory System and Theirs Adaptations. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3654241/ Sheep Brain Dissection Guide. (n.d.). Dissection of the sheep's brain. Retrieved from http://psych.hanover.edu/classes/neuropsychology/Syllabus/Labs/DISSECTION.pdf Singh. (2008). General Anatomy. Mumbai: Elsevier India. Society for Neuroscience. (2012). Taste and Smell. Retrieved from http://www.brainfacts.org/sensing-thinking-behaving/senses-and-perception/articles/2012/taste-and-smell/ Solly, S. (2006). The human brain, its configuration, structure, development and physiology. London: Oxford University. Taylor, T. (2013). Respiratory System. Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/respiratory Tortora, G & Derrickson, B. (2008). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Unam. (n.d.). The Neuron. Retrieved from http://www.ifc.unam.mx/Brain/neuron.htm Yale. (n.d.). Urinary System Lab. Retrieved from http://medcell.med.yale.edu/histology/urinary_system_lab.php Read More