The Importance of Toxicology in Today's Society - Essay Example

The Importance of Toxicology in Today's Society Introduction. Toxicology is defined as “The branch of science that deals with poisons and a poison as any substance that causes a harmful effect when administered, either by accident or design, to a living organism (1).” Relationship to other sciences. Toxicology relies on basic principles of biology, chemistry, physics, earth science, and oceanic and atmospheric science to fully characterize risks to the environment of pollutants (2, 3, 4, 5). History of toxicology. The study of toxicology dates back to the ancient Greeks and was formalized as a serious science in the beginning of the 19th century. With the onset of the industrial revolution, physicians began to accumulate data on the effects of deleterious chemicals on workers. From a purely medical standpoint, the study of toxicology became a science unto itself at the beginning of the 20th century (6). Sources of toxic compounds. Synthetic organic compounds. The word “toxic” is a relative term. Any chemical can be toxic to humans if administered in a large enough dose. However, in the study of toxicology, the word “toxic” usually refers to a chemical in low dose in comparison to the mass of the organism. Since the dawn of the production of synthetic organic compounds, many of these chemicals have been discovered to be deleterious to humans, plants and animals (7). Air, water and food pollutants. Synthetic organic compounds enter the environment through wastewater from industrial plants and residential homes. From there, the chemicals enter the rivers, streams, and oceans, may re-enter the atmosphere through particle formation, and eventually to food supplies through precipitation into crops and livestock. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), monitor the concentration of these chemicals in food and water supplies to humans (8). Chemical additives in food. Many chemicals used on food crops have subsequently been found to be toxic to consumers. These include fertilizers, insecticides, and now the threat of deleterious gene mutations. Agricultural biotechnology has been focused on increasing crop yield and reducing crop costs through activities such as pest resistance and nitrogen fixation. It remains to be seen how novel genes and genetic manipulation of crops will affect humans in the years ahead (9). Chemicals in the workplace. Many industrial workers have been exposed to deleterious chemicals since the dawn of the industrial revolution. Perhaps the most famous example is the use of asbestos in the workplace, including construction, automotive industry, and shipyards. The result of human exposure to this toxic compound is lung and respiratory disease (10). Drugs of abuse. Recreational drug use of neurostimulators including methamphetamines, cocaine, and even nicotine may result in overdose and demise of the user. Other drugs of abuse include alcohol, marijuana, and heroin. Of recent times, prescription drugs have been abused, including drugs used by young people (11). Therapeutic drugs. Painkillers have been abused, often times by people in high profiles, including actors, politicians and professional athletes. Other therapeutic drugs that have been abused include performance enhancing drugs, including steroids and human growth hormone (12). Pesticides. Prior to the advent of agricultural biotechnology, synthetic organic compounds were extensively utilized to increase crop yields. These include DDT, and at high doses, are toxic to consumers, both human and livestock (13). Solvents. Chemicals including tolulene, butylene and xylene have been used in industry and have resulted in toxicity to consumers. Solvents are used in paints and the production of synthetic carbon polymers like polyester in clothing. Solvents have been a problem for environmental toxicology for a long time, and their deleterious effects still remain to be seen (14). Polycyclic aromatic compounds. Perhaps the most well-known environmental toxins in this group are PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls. These molecules are used in industry, and chemicals included in this category are compounds utilized in refrigerants. Testing by the EPA has indicated that there is widespread contamination of these chemicals in streams, rivers and ground water. Exposure to these chemicals in humans results in the development of cancer (15). Cosmetics. The development of cosmetics in the beginning of the 20th century resulted in exposure of humans to toxic compounds. In the present time, strict regulation of these products by the FDA has resulted in the development of cosmetics which are safer to human exposure (16). Naturally occurring toxins. Many microbes, plants, and animals produce toxins for defense mechanisms against predation (17). Mycotoxins. Fungi secrete a multiple array of toxic compounds in their struggle for survival against bacteria. Many of these compounds have been exploited in medicine in the form of antibiotics. Perhaps the most well-known antibiotic is penicillin (18). Microbial toxins. A host of bacteria produce toxic chemicals. These include compounds that results from microbial metabolism as well as defense. Botulinum toxin has been utilized in medicine to treat skin aging, as well as a treatment for spasmodic dysphonia, a disorder of the vocal cords (19). Plant toxins. Plants secrete toxins as a method of avoidance of grazing by animals. One common example is poison ivy which results in mild skin irritation in humans (20). Animal toxins. Most animal toxins are produced as a means of defense. One good example is tetrodo toxin produced by puffer fish in Asia. The chemical warns predators to stay away. Another common animal toxin is snake venom (21). Inorganic chemicals. The majority of these chemical compounds include heavy metals which result from industry and mining. The metals often leach into the local water supply and are disseminated by environmental processes including runoff and wind (22). Environmental movement of toxins. Biogeochemical cycling results in the spread of toxins throughout the planet (23). Toxic chemicals are released into the atmosphere as smoke, form particulates, and are deposited into the ocean and terrestrial habitats by precipitation (24). Toxins can accumulate in organisms near the top of ecological food chains. Some examples of this are barnacles, which filter thousands of gallons of seawater through their gills to concentrate the plankton they feed on. As a result of this filtration, environmental toxins accumulate in the barnacle tissue. Because of this filtration and concentration, barnacles are often studies by environmental scientists to determine the quality of the ambient seawater (25). Conclusion. As new technology develops in the field of environmental science, toxicological studies will become more accurate, sensitive, and informative. This is illustrated in the area of biotechnology, where biological sampling is focusing on the response of the organism to toxicity. One such area of research includes the examination of “stress proteins” which are induced by environmental challenge in organisms from bacteria to humans. This data will be utilized to determine more environmentally friendly methods of industrial production, more efficient use of fossil fuels, and environmental byproducts which are less damaging to the planet. References (1) Hodgson, E., Levi, P. (1987). A textbook of modern toxicology. Elsevier, New York. 386 pp. (2) Campbell, N. (1990). Biology. Benjamin/Cummings, California. 1165 pp. (3) Russell, J. (1980). General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill, New York. 797 pp. (4) Hecht, E. (1994). Physics. Brooks/Cole, California. 1164 pp. (5) Gross, G. (1987). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. 406 pp. (6) Hughes MF, Beck BD, Chen Y, Lewis AS, Thomas DJ. Arsenic Exposure and Toxicology: A Historical Perspective. Toxicol Sci. 2011 Jul 12. [Epub ahead of print] (7) Pluta K, Morak-Młodawska B, Jeleń M. Recent progress in biological activities of synthesized phenothiazines. Eur J Med Chem. 2011 Aug;46(8):3179-89 (8) Mosca S, Torelli GN, Guerriero E, Tramontana G, Pomponio S, Rossetti G, Rotatori M. Evaluation of a simultaneous sampling method of PAHs, PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in ambient air. J Environ Monit. 2010 May;12(5):1092-9. (9) Wu CH, Huang SM, Lin JA, Yen GC. Inhibition of advanced glycation endproduct formation by foodstuffs. Food Funct. 2011 May 25;2(5):224-34. (10) Wang XR, Yu IT, Qiu H, Wang MZ, Lan YJ, Tse LY, Yano E, Christiani DC. Cancer mortality among Chinese chrysotile asbestos textile workers. Lung Cancer. 2011 Jul 26. [Epub ahead of print] (11) Sham MK Down on the pharm: the juvenile prescription drug abuse epidemic and the necessity of holding parents criminally liable for making drugs accessible in their homes. J Contemp Health Law Policy. 2011 Spring;27(2):426-52. (12) Maremmani I, Stefania C, Pacini M, Maremmani AG, Carlini M, Golia F, Deltito J, Dell'Osso L. Differential substance abuse patterns distribute according to gender in heroin addicts.J Psychoactive Drugs. 2010 Mar;42(1):89-95. (13) Middlemore-Risher ML, Adam BL, Lambert NA, Terry AV. Effects of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-oxon on the dynamics and movement of mitochondria in rat cortical neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2011 Jul 28. [Epub ahead of print] (14) Zheng S, Qiu X, Chen B, Yu X, Lin K, Bian M, Liu Z, Huang H, Yu W. Toxicity evaluation of benzo[a]pyrene on the polychaete Perinereis nuntia using subtractive cDNA libraries. Aquat Toxicol. 2011 Jun 29;105(3-4):279-291. (15) Kodavanti PR, Osorio C, Royland JE, Ramabhadran R, Alzate O. Aroclor-1254, a developmental neurotoxicant, alters energy metabolism- and intracellular signaling-associated protein networks in rat cerebellum and hippocampus. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2011 Jul 21. [Epub ahead of print] (16) Gopie P, Sakhamuri S, Sharma A, Solomon S, Teelucksingh S. Acute pneumonitis secondary to subcutaneous silicone injection. Int J Gen Med. 2011;4:477-9. (17) Russo P, Nastrucci C, Cesario A. From the Sea to Anticancer Therapy. Curr Med Chem. 2011 Jul 14. [Epub ahead of print] (18) Connolly CA Pneumococcic meningitis: complete recovery of a 6-month-old infant treated with penicillin. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011 May;165(5):385-7. (19) Kumada A, Matsuka Y, Spigelman I, Maruhama K, Yamamoto Y, Neubert JK, Nolan TA, Watanabe K, Maekawa K, Kamioka H, Yamashiro T, Kuboki T, Oguma K. Intradermal injection of Botulinum toxin type A alleviates infraorbital nerve constriction-induced thermal hyperalgesia in an operant assay. J Oral Rehabil. 2011 Jul 27 [Epub ahead of print] (20) Cushnie TP, Lamb AJ. Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011 Aug;38(2):99-107. (21) Reid PF. Cobra venom: A review of the old alternative to opiate analgesics.Altern Ther Health Med. 2011 Jan-Feb;17(1):58-71. (22) Plum LM, Rink L, Haase H.The essential toxin: impact of zinc on human health.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010 Apr;7(4):1342-65. (23) Orcutt BN, Sylvan JB, Knab NJ, Edwards KJ.Microbial ecology of the dark ocean above, at, and below the seafloor.Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2011 Jun;75(2):361-422. (24) Thomsen MS, Olden JD, Wernberg T, Griffin JN, Silliman BR.A broad framework to organize and compare ecological invasion impacts.Environ Res. 2011 Jun 20. [Epub ahead of print] (25) Niyogi S, Biswas S, Sarker S, Datta AG.Seasonal variation of antioxidant and biotransformation enzymes in barnacle, Balanus balanoides, and their relation with polyaromatic hydrocarbons.Mar Environ Res. 2001 Jul;52(1):13-26. Read More