Exercise Behavior in Adults - Essay Example

Running head: EXERCISE BEHAVIOR IN ADULTS Exercise Behavior in Adults [The of the appears here] [The of the appears here] Exercise Behavior in Adults Although the benefits of regular physical activity have been well documented, (Marcus, Forsyth, Stone, Dubbert, McKenzie, Dunn & Blair 2000) the majority of adults in developed countries do not exercise. Unfortunately, those who could stand to gain the greatest health benefits from an exercise program tend to be the individuals who fail to realize their exercise intentions. (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer 2005) In addition, epidemiological research indicates that physical activity decreases with age. (Stephens & Caspersen 1994) This problem is even greater for females, as older women report the least amount of regular physical activity of all demographic age groups. (Marcus, Forsyth, Stone, Dubbert, McKenzie, Dunn & Blair 2000) This lack of physical activity among the elderly is of even greater concern when considering the changing demographics. Numerous psychological theories have been utilized to explain exercise behavior. Exercise and the Theory of Reasoned Action/Planned Behavior The intention to perform a behavior is the most important factor to actually engaging in future behavior, according to Fishbein and Ajzens (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975) Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Ajzens (Ajzen 1985) extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model. The TRA states that an intention is formed through a weighted appraisal of attitudes towards a behavior and the subjective norms for this behavior. The TRA/TPB suggests subjective norms reflect the summed products of the following 2 factors: (i) the individuals beliefs that referents (such as family and friends) influence the behavior in question; and (ii) his or her motivation to comply with these referents. Research support for the importance of subjective norms in exercise intention has generally been insignificant among older and younger adults. (Courneya, Estabrooks & Nigg 1997) Unlike attitude, which tends to consistently account for approximately 30% of behavioral intention, social norms are rarely even significant and always account for a very small percentage towards the variance of exercise intentions. Still, social norms tend to have greater impact on less educated members of a community, and further survey research is needed to assess the impact of social norms on the geriatric population. (Armitage 2005) Both the TRA and the extended TPB identify behavioral intention as the central predictor of behavior. In cross-sectional research, significant associations were identified between intention and self-reported regular exercise (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer 2005) and pre-contemplation, contemplation and preparation stages of exercise behavior. Further, a 3-year longitudinal follow-up identified intention with significant discriminant ability between individuals who had maintained their exercise stage versus those who had relapsed. (Courneya, Estabrooks & Nigg 1997) However, the same study failed to discriminate those who did not change stages from those who moved to a latter stage. Unfortunately, age differences in behavioral intention significantly differ between older and younger adults, (Stephens & Caspersen 1994) although not all research has found this association. In general, exercise intention is a consistent predictor of behavior, with an average explained variance of 30%. The enormous percentage of both men and women that do not even intend to adopt exercise behavior is a serious concern, and must be considered a crucial factor to change using intervention strategies. (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer 2005) The Tran-theoretical Model of Behavior Change (TM), a model developed to explain and describe smoking behavior, has been adapted relatively recently to the study of exercise adherence. (Prochaska & DiClemente 1983) The TM postulates that the process of behavior change occurs in the following stages: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance. Individuals are hypothesized to move back and forth through these stages several times before developing a stable behavior pattern. Therefore, the TM is both stable and dynamic. This model may have important implications for both the evaluation of exercise adoption and maintenance, as it allows for potential determinants and barriers to differ in relative importance amongst the various stages. Further, different interventions can be targeted to match the corresponding determinants of behavior at a particular stage. (Prochaska & DiClemente 1983) Self-Efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory Banduras Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) (Bandura 1977) incorporates many concepts and constructs encompassed in other models by postulating that the person, behavior and environmental events interact in a triadic, reciprocal fashion. Through cognition, the capacity to represent future consequence serves as a motivator for the individual in each given behavior. Self-efficacy and outcome expectation are the 2 important constructs of the SCT regarding behavior motivation. Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that one can successfully perform a desired behavior given various instrumental barriers and is considered the situation specific mechanism in which all behavior changes are mediated. (Bandura 1977) According to SCT, self-efficacy determines: (i) whether an individual attempts a given task; (ii) the degree of persistence when the individual encounters difficulties; and (iii) ultimate success or failure. (Bandura 1977) Self-efficacy appears to be very important in the initial adoption of exercise. (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer 2005) A 5-month exercise program on previously sedentary adults aged 45 to 65 years indicated that self-efficacy was a significant predictor over the first 3 months of the program, but less so in 5 months. This is in agreement with self-efficacy theory. (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer 2005) As individuals progress with a chronic behavior and exercise becomes routine and masterful, self-efficacy is less of a salient cognition. Based upon these findings, the temporal relationship between self-efficacy and exercise adherence among the elderly requires future investigation. So far, no gender differences have been significant in self-efficacy research among older adults. The Perception of Benefits and Barriers to Exercise Adherence A strong belief in the benefits of exercise has been associated with exercise behavior among older adults in several studies. (Hellman 1997) In contrast, frequent reporting of barriers to regular exercise has shown a negative relationship towards exercise adherence. (Hellman 1997) The primary benefit of exercise for adults is almost always reported as health and fitness. Conclusion As individuals grow older, the nature and type of exercise tends to change. It has been observed that activities such as walking increase in preference, while more vigorous exercise, such as swimming and cycling, decrease. (Thompson & Wankel 1980) However, walking tends to increase as an activity with the onset of age, especially with elderly females. Similarly, gardening is a popular activity that remains relatively stable among young and elderly females, but increases significantly in preference among aging males. Therefore, change in the nature and type of exercise is important to consider, since perceived choice over the type of activity, enjoyment and the level of exertion committed has been shown to improve adherence and continued activity. (Thompson & Wankel 1980) Moreover, enjoyment of the exercise program has also been reported an important determinant of short and long term adherence among younger and middle-aged adults. Therefore, although more research is required, a great diversity of activities based on relatively moderate to low exertion and maximum enjoyment should be provided to increase adherence for adults in general. References Ajzen I. (1985) From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behaviour. In: Kuhl J, Beckman J, editor. Action control: from cognition to behavior. Heidelberg: Springer, 1985: 11-39 Armitage, C.J.(2005). Can the theory of planned behavior predict the maintenance of physical activity? Health Psychology, 24(3), 235-245 Bandura A. (1977) Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavior. Psychol Rev 1977; 84: 191-215 Courneya KS, Estabrooks PA, Nigg CR. (1997) Predicting change in exercise stage over a three-year period: an application of the theory of planned behavior. Avante 1997; 3 (1): 1-13 Fishbein M, Ajzen I. (1975) Beliefs, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Reading (MA): Addison-Wesley, 1975 Hellman EA. (1997) Use of stages of change in exercise adherence model among older adults with a cardiac diagnosis. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 1997; 17: 145-55 Marcus, B.H., Forsyth, L.H., Stone,E.J., Dubbert,P.M., McKenzie, T.L.,Dunn,A.L., & Blair, S.N. (2000). Physical activity behavior change: Issues in adoption and maintenance. Health Psychology, 19(1S), 32-41. Prochaska JO, DiClemente C. (1983) Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of change. J Consult Clin Psychol 1983; 51: 390-5 Sniehotta, F. F., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R.(2005). Bridging the intention-behavior gap: Planning, self-efficacy, and action control in the adoption and maintenance of physical exercise. Psychology & Health, 20(2), 143-160. Stephens T, Caspersen CJ. (1994) The demography of physical activity. In: Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T, editors. Physical activity, fitness and health. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1994: 204-13 Thompson CE, Wankel LM. (1980) The effects of perceived activity choice upon frequency of exercise behavior. J Appl Soc Psychol 1980; 10: 436-43 Read More