Linguistics and Theory of Translation - Thesis Example

?Introduction: The term ‘culture’ is a multifaceted word encompassing a wide spectrum of notions and concepts related to society, community, language, and so on and so forth. When it comes to describing the interaction between language and culture, a large number of things have to be taken into serious consideration. Especially, in translation, this interaction must be defined as well as elaborated with an empirical approach including convincible data. This research study aims to describe individual as well as collective reaction of speakers toward the translation of cultural elements in a foreign language. The research is based on an appropriate linguistic approach that includes multiple demographic variables such as age, gender, language, and education. The relation between culture and language is a mutual one. Language is described as a means of understanding the world around us. To put it in a more conventional manner, language is the expression of culture. However, conceptualising culture is not free of complications. This happens due to the multifaceted nature of culture as the latter is an umbrella term amalgamating a wider range of notions and ideas. Especially, in the context of translating words from a foreign language, individuals often face the problems of receiving absolute semantic denotations of words. This most possibly may lead to a complete misunderstanding as well as misinterpretation of an entire culture to the foreigners. Conclusion: The conceptualisation of culture is a rather individual affair than a collective one for the primary reason that the notion of culture varies from person to person. In terms of translation, this variation only increases. Complications usually occur specifically with the cases of translating or interpreting borrowed words or loan words, culturally charged terms, metaphors or idioms into a foreign language. Translation problems further include special consideration of basic variables like age, gender and the level of education of the speakers. Apart from the structural linguistic differences between source text (ST) and target text (TT), the argumentation of ‘culture infused in language’ is very logical when it comes to determining the appropriate translation of language at all linguistic levels (Armstrong, 2005). Objectives and observations: The conception of culture is a vast one that also addresses relevant issues of linguistic diversity. The impact of culture is evidently great in the contexts of language borrowing and language contact. This includes the examples of loan words and other culturally charged vocabulary where translation issues are significant. The primary objective of this research work is to highlight some of the problems translators face while dealing with culturally charged words. It also discusses the cultural as well as ideological meaning attached to loan words and terms translated in different languages. That is to say, the research focuses mainly on: a) how the respondents react to loan words, culturally charged terms and mistranslated terms and, b) examining if these words influence the targeted audience’s choice of destination or opinion for a destination. More particularly, there is a remarkably evident correlation between the two broader notions - ‘culture’ and ‘language’. As we commonly perceive the definition of this correlation, language is considered to be an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers. In other words, language is the medium of expressing how the speakers of a particular culture or society perceive the world. Further, this cultural impact has a significant role in translation. That is to say, if language influences our thought process as well as our culture, it clearly interprets that ultimate translation is not possible. In linguistic terms, source text-oriented translation is indeed a difficult task. But more precisely, basic information details of the respondents are essential before getting into translation issues. The variables related to the basic information of the respondents are included in the priority list of the questionnaire (see in Appendices) prepared for the fieldwork as well. Fundamental knowledge of the respondents’ cultural background is as important as basic aspects such as age, sex, and so on. This research work provides basic biological information of the respondents including their age, sex and level of education. These are indeed relevant variables in order to determine and explain the problems related to translation and semantic understanding of loan words, culturally charged vocabulary and other terms. If we look for a generic understanding of the term ‘translation’ itself, it refers to “transference of meaning from the Source Language (SL) to the Target Language (TL).” (Das, 2008, p. 34) Translation can be conceptualised as both linguistic as well as cultural activity, and is primarily concerned with the communication of meaning. Now coming back to the problems practically faced by translators, it is the responsibility of the translator to consider the basic variables of the respondents, variables that actually affect their understanding as well as description of the translated vocabulary. If we take note of the fieldwork of this research, the basic details of the respondents indeed emphasise a lot more about the various issues of translation between SL and TL. For instance, the field report (see data in Appendices) evidently shows that variation in age groups is quite apparent in terms of demonstrating differences in responses to tourist advertisements. The data collected for this research is composed of 50 people, from 17 to 78 years old. The respondents belong to two different groups, a group of 25 English individuals and a group of 25 French individuals. Apparently, the group with a higher response level towards the tourist advertisements was the 31-40 years old group with an overall 30% response rate, and among an age distribution of 43/57 female/male which was represented by 3 females and 4 males. Although, the gender variable seemed to be neutral as a whole, in this particular age group of 31-40 it seemed to gain a 5% decrease/increased impact as how females/males respond to the advertisements. With regard to a comparative analysis between English and French respondents, it is important to highlight that in almost each age group there was a 50/50 representation of English vs. French speakers. Since, the English vs. French speakers in the survey and in the response level appeared to be equally represented and to have a parallel response, the language variable impact to determine the trend for the survey may be neutral as well. Similar variation is visible in terms of the level of education as well. The survey revealed that 6 of the positive responses to both attraction and desire came from females aged between 60 and 80 with a high school education level, while in the male group those who have a college degree have the highest response rate of a 5/12 with an age distribution of 2 in the 10-20 years, 2 (31-40) and 1 (41-50). When compared both groups there is an opposite response level within the high school education respondents. Whereas for the female group the highest rate was 6 out of 11 or 54%, and for the males the lowest was 3 out of 12 or 25% of responses. Therefore, it appears at this point that females with lower education level are more likely to experiment parallel attraction and desired when expose to a tourism add, while men who have the same reaction posses a higher education level. According to the survey results 46% of the surveyed or 23 out of 50 individuals claimed to have equally experienced the same level of attraction towards tourist advertisements before choosing a travel destination than an increased desire to travel when expose to advertisements; from where the gender distribution in the response rate was a 48/52, which is represented by 11 females or 48 percent, and 12 males or 52%. This percentage concurs with the number of fameless and males participating in this survey as a whole. Therefore, the gender variable at this point reveals to be neutral. The travel related issues mentioned in the questionnaire speak of another similar story. The survey shows an 82 percent higher increasing desired to travel when exposed to the advertisements published by the Tourist office, and a 50 percent response rate to the believe of being attracted by tourist advertisements. When compared the response rates to these the travel-related questions (questions 6 and 7), there is a 32 percent variance between the feelings and believes of the respondents. This brings up the attitude component to the survey’s results, where believes and feelings may be contradictory. That is to say, it is possible that these feelings may not necessarily be accurate and even contradictory which often makes difficult to explain a consumer final attitude. With regard to a general definition of what culture is all about, sociolinguists collectively agree that it is the fundamental identity of a community or a society. In other words, culture is the mirror image of a society. As language is the medium to express this mirror image of the society, both language and culture are significant in order to explain that mirror image to the outside world or other societies and cultures. Explaining this interaction of cultures on a larger scale, the role of translation comes into the fore front as the latter provides a window to take a wider view of different societies and cultures, all in terms of linguistic description. Issues in translation and culture: The subject of translation is an intriguing one where culture plays a significant role. Among the many difficulties to be usually faced in translation, the aspect of cultural sensitivity is considered as a key factor by field linguists. While the translators communicate the information from the source language to the target language, they are required to take into account the cultural aspects of the source language. In this context, issues tend to arise in determining the authenticity of literal translation. Linguists tend to differ in terms of validating the relevance of literal translation in accomplishing ultimate translation. The task of translation is not just about literal translation; in fact “literal translation should be avoided at all costs because it fails to carry the transposition of culture.” (Das, 2008, p. 37) However, Chomsky’s argumentation of deep and surface structures does convince that ultimate translation is anyhow possible. In order to avoid the tendencies of misinterpretation, it is the translator’s responsibility to adopt a systematic approach with regard to determining the relevant words from source language to translate into the target language. The translator generally looks out for lexical contents as well as syntax, metaphors, idioms, to name a few. Besides, adequate emphasis should be on the translational strategies used to translate words of cultural reference such as loan word and paraphrase. The loan word, indicating an unknown concept for the reader, attaches the translated text to the source culture. On the other hand, the inclusion of paraphrase ensures the comprehension of readers. It also affects the authenticity of the translated text while shifting away from the source culture. Looking at this aspect more closely in the context of the use of loan words in field data, it is important to note that the loan words play a significant role in understanding the socio-cultural perspectives of the source language. Further, the loan words that connect the translation to the source culture can be perceived in both positive as well as negative ways. It depends on a number of factors of the speakers. For instance, a younger generation may react to the translation of loan words in a negative manner while the elderly speakers tend to react positively in interpreting the loan words. This is because the elderly speakers tend to be more familiar with the knowledge and use of loan words. Therefore, in terms of translating loan words, the issues of a) misinterpretation and b) positive or negative impact of the respondents are serious points to consider. Loan word influence is relevant with regard to determining the understanding as well as reactions of respondents in a given culture. It is usually observed that a possibly accurate translation of loan words is quite difficult. This is because culturally-bound concepts and notions are always difficult to translate into a foreign language with ultimate accuracy. One of the primary benefits of loan words is that these borrowed words convey source text culture. In a linguistic point of view, the inclusion of loan words in culture-bound text translation is an intentional translation strategy that effectively contributing to the understanding of a cultural perspective of the source language. While dealing with loan words in original and translated texts, Frankenberg-Garcia (2005) has discussed certain points to consider by the translators while preparing the list of loan words of the source language: Are there more loans in translations than in source texts? Is the superimposition of languages in source texts effaced by translation? Does the relative status of the ST language and culture affect the use of loans in translation? Along with these questions, frequency of loan words is also kept in mind in the field survey. While dealing with the misinterpretation of the loan words, it is important to consider a number of factors such as age, gender and level of education of the speakers. These are basic variables to be taken into serious account in order to determine the appropriateness of meaning as well as frequency of usage of the loan words from a foreign language. The age, sex and education of the respondents seem to play their respective decisive parts in determining the positive or negative impact of the loan words, to some extent or the other. Variation in these factors is a common thing in different societies and cultures. For instance, in the context of education, the loan word seems to have a significant importance for the speakers with higher education in some societies. It is usually observed that the understanding of loan words is more profound among elderly speakers rather than those from younger generations. Further, this argument can be effective in terms of explaining why younger speakers as well as those having basic education would like to go for an inaccurate term instead of using a loan word when it comes to translating borrowed words from a foreign language. Coming back to the relation between language and culture, culture is the way of life of a community that uses a particular language as a means of expressing their understanding of the world. As these two concepts are closely related, translation studies should consider both language and culture. Morgan and Cain (2000) have discussed the relationship between language and culture at length along with an elaborative categorisation of relevant aspects to consider. The discussion can be briefed in the following points and aspects: Language creates cultural categories: Language has a twofold objectivity program: while it refers as well as denotes specific cultural factors, it also “forms culture by creating certain classifying principles.” (Morgan and Cain, 2000, p. 6) Culture ‘polices’ language: While language constitutes, constructs and denotes culture, the latter operates an equally significant functionality of policing the kind of language that is allowed with that specific cultural context. In other words, cultural norms prescribe language and its use. Cultural empowerment through language: Language plays an important role in accessing certain cultural power groups. That is to say, those who speak the target language have more access power of the language as well as its culture than the speakers who are learning that language. However, these ‘outside’ learners have the access of learning particular varieties of that language. Language has definitional variation based on cultures: It is relevant that the notion of language is perceived differently by different individuals of different cultures. Talking about translation studies in the context of the cordial relationship between culture and language, translation involves the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group. Since culture is an essential attachment of language and vice versa, the process of translation also involves a systematic strategy of cultural encoding, decoding and recoding. The umbrella term of culture is an amalgamation of both dynamicity and consistence. It is dynamic in the sense that cultures are increasingly brought into contact with one another. On the other hand, the consistence of cultures refers to the usual tendency of cultures for not going in favour of change in long terms. It is this contradictory nature of culture that directly affects the role of language played within that cultural context. Therefore, it would be appropriate to argue in the context of the relationship between culture and language that cultural translation is a more suitable area of emphasis in the language-culture study than a plain literal translation. A more appropriate solution is to combine cultural context with literal translation. It is important that translators pay great attention to and focus on the linguistic understanding of a culture or the cultural understanding of a language in their translation studies. 4. Cultural references and translation issues: Translation inevitably includes two languages and two cultures – that of the source language and source culture, and target language and target culture. In this context, translators often face the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects inherent in the source text (ST) as well as of finding appropriate interpretation in the target language (TL). Here, the issue of false equivalence is relevant. It is relevant that false equivalence slightly betrays the source culture in comparison to loan words which associate the translation to the source culture. Determining the absolute equivalence of words, especially those culture-bound words, is almost next to impossible as language cannot accomplish that kind of ultimate translation. It has been long taken for granted that translation deals only with language. While cultural perspective is rightfully evident in a language, translating that perspective with utmost accuracy is a Herculean task for speakers. Translating a language is like translating a culture. Translating culture-specific words is one of the most challenging tasks performed by the speakers of a community. The problems in translation usually take place when speakers are faced with the choice between loan words that attach the target text to the culture of the source text, and the issue of omission, which distances the translated text from the source culture because of the elimination of the cultural elements. When it comes to translating cultural elements, loan words are usually preferred to the use of omission. A general definition of omission refers to dropping of word(s) from the source language while translating. Omission usually takes place because of the absence of equivalence in the target language. Some culturally charged words such as taboo words of one language do not have equivalence in another language. To put it in a different way, some words commonly accepted in one society can be considered as taboo in another society. In such cases, omission becomes essential in translation. Regarding the translation of metaphors, omission is preferred by translators to some extent. Translators usually tend to avoid the inclusion of metaphors in translation. Going by the definition of metaphors, a metaphor is charged with cultural references that are not easily translatable. Translators usually prefer not to translate such expressions strongly charged with cultural references. Whenever it comes to describing culturally charged words, the issues of culture differences tend to interfere in translation to a great extent. Translating word by word may also provide a linguistically sound picture of the ‘deep structure’ as well as ‘surface structure’ or most possibly a near equivalent word of the source language text. But getting an exact translation of culture-bound metaphors and idioms is a rather difficult picture to imagine. Translation can provide a better cultural and linguistic scenario of making a comparative analysis of two different language groups in terms of determining their mutual as well as individual perceptions of various culture-bound vocabularies. Regarding the perception of metaphors, it is usually found among speakers that they give priority to translation of metaphors by equivalent expressions, but find it difficult to come up with appropriate equivalence in terms of certain metaphors strikingly culture-bound. In the case of the latter, literal translation is hard to accept. Consequently, such translation gives in to omission of certain texts from the source language while translating into the target language. The scope of the issues or problems highlighted in translation largely depends on the cultural as well as linguistic gap between the languages concerned. Furthermore, with regard to translating culture-oriented metaphors or idioms, it is significant to determine how much missing background information should be provided by the translator given that there exists a remarkably prominent cultural gap between the languages concerned. As discussed earlier in this chapter, variation of cultural concepts and notions is a usual phenomenon observed in different cultures or societies. The positivity of one culture can be considered as a striking negativity in another. This cultural variation can extend to linguistic variations as well. As language expresses our culture and thought, it is important to have a comprehensive knowledge of both cultures and languages for translating more effectively and efficiently. Cultural knowledge is an essential requirement in translation from source language text to target language. Words with cultural references are usually preferred to be translated by equivalent expression (which is difficult as discussed earlier). A word-by-word translation cannot provide appropriate denotation of metaphors and idioms in source language into the target language. The literal translation is said to be attaching the target text to the source text. However, adding cultural references to translation can provide a better picture. Translating by an equivalent expression adapts the target text to the source culture while making the translation comprehensible to the readers. Avoiding the translation of a metaphor indicates a desire to remove all the elements that could complicate the comprehension of the reader without any consideration of the source culture. If we attempt to explain how the literal translation of a metaphor is perceived by respondents, a different picture comes out. Research studies demonstrate that the translation of an expression in the same order as the original is often perceived to be difficult to comprehend. The reorganization is necessary in certain cases to assure that the target text is more readable. Such re-arrangements are required to make with regard to providing a linguistic description of the source language through the translated piece of work. While word-by-word translation provides the basic word translation, its complete meaning still remains incomplete and hence, the text becomes incomprehensible. However, the cultural references that attest the origins of the text are desirable as long as they contribute to the exoticism of the text and thus to the passage to the source culture. From this point of view, the literal translation could lead to the articulation of an idea in a more innovating way. But in practical context, literal translation does not seem to be much helpful with regard to illustrating a more appropriate understanding of culturally charged vocabulary of the source text into the target language. Nonetheless, the aspects of translation study are too complicated to discuss within a specified limitation. The effectiveness of literal translation cannot be completely ignored though. A literal translation can still provide a comprehensible denotation of the words in source text. As mentioned earlier, the understanding of ‘deep’ and ‘surface’ structure is relevant for a linguist to make accurate linguistic analysis. But at the same time, the notion of culture cannot be ignored as it is an inevitable element of a language and vice versa. Therefore, to conclude, cultural implications are relevant factors in order to determine the comprehensibility of the source text as well as the appropriateness of its translation into the target language. The disadvantage of a word-by-word translation is that it cannot always guarantee quality translation because of the fact that one language can never express the actual meaning of the other given that the translation is based only on words. That is to say, translation problems seem to arise from cultural as well as linguistic gap if it is only about word-to-word translation without any inclusion of cultural references. Culture matters a lot in language, and vice versa. These two aspects are almost inseparable and to be dealt with equal emphasis when it comes to conducting serious translation studies. Therefore, inclusion of cultural references is significant in translation. There are certain cultural elements to consider in translation: Tradition and customs are essential parts of a culture. Translating words related to customs and tradition is difficult for a translator as the latter is required to have a complete knowledge of the significance of the occasion before looking for an appropriate translation for it. In case of translation in a global context, the verification of the connotation of the culturally charged vocabulary is important. Because, such cultural concepts can have different meanings of the same word in different languages. It is important that the translator focuses on the translation and linguistic expression within a wider cultural environment. For instance, the expressions of humour are to be translated with utmost care as such expressions are comprehended differently in different societies and cultures. Similarly, cultural factors such as pictures, symbols as well as colour terminology can have different meanings in different societies. Symbols accepted as sacred in one culture can be considered to have negative connotations in another society. In such cases, literal translation never works successfully. Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of cultural contexts of both source and target languages is an essential requirement of the translator. Culture is rooted deeply in language while language showcases culture to the outside world. Therefore, translation works wonders in a well-calculated combination of language and culture. APPENDICES Questionnaire: General Background Information 1) Are you…….  Female /  Male 2) Age________ 3) Education level : (please tick one) Elementary school  High school  College  University/postgraduate 4) How often do you travel? (please tick one) Weekly to Monthly More than once a year  Every 2-3 years  Every 4-5 years  Never 5) Before you chose a travel destination, do tourist advertisements attract your attention?  Yes  No 6) Do you think these advertisements (figures 1, 2, 3, 4) influence consumers’ desire to travel?  Yes  No 7) Which element do you think influences the consumer the most in an advertisement– text or image?  Image  Text 8) Would you prefer to read Greek words or translated English words?  English  Greek At the level of words: Lack of Equivalence between Two Lexical Units: Loan words, Paraphrase The question that interests us in this part concerns the attitude of the readers to loan words and paraphrases of untranslatable words. 9) In cases where a word does not exist in English, would you prefer to see the same word borrowed from Greek in translated versions, or replaced with an explanation?  Borrowed word  Paraphrase with supplementary explanation 10) The Greek term “gliko tou koutaliou” describes a Cypriot delicacy. How would you prefer to see this term translated?  Jars of “glyko” (as in figure 5)  Preserved fruit desserts (as in figure 6) 11) Do you think borrowed words influence the consumer positively or negatively?  Negatively  Positively 12) Would you rather a word that does not exist in English be borrowed from Greek in translated versions of advertisements or be replaced by a word of a more general or inexact meaning?  Borrowed  Replaced with a word with inexact meaning At the Sentence Level: Omission and Metaphor What interests us in this part is the reaction of the reader to the omission of certain elements by the translator and the translation of metaphor 13) Do you think texts should be translated word by word or should translators omit elements that may complicate the reader and that are culturally charged?  Omission  Word by word translation 14) Do you think it would be preferable to avoid translating metaphors?  Yes  No 15) Do you think its best to literally translate metaphors, to find equivalent expressions or to avoid translating such expressions?  Literal Translation  Equivalent Expressions  Avoid metaphors 16) Would you say that the literal translation of an expression leads to a more creative way of expressing a thought?  Yes  No 17) The Greek metaphor was literally translated in English as “Pole of attraction” in figure 9. In your opinion, what does this expression mean?  A place that attracts many people  A field of force Respondents’ data – codified answer sheet: Respondents (1-25? English Speakers) (26-50?French Speakers) Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9 Question 10 Question 11 Question 12 Question 13 Question 14 Question 15 Question 16 Question 17 1. English Speaker Male 34 University Once a year Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Borrowed omission Yes Avoid metaphor No Place 2. English Speaker Male 23 University Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 3. English Speaker Female 68 High School Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Word No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 4. English Speaker Female 70 High School Every 4-5 Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 5. English Speaker Male 40 College Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 6. English Speaker Male 30 University Once a year No Yes Image English Paraphrase Jars Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 7. English Speaker Female 33 College Once a year Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 8. English Speaker Male 34 College Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 9. English Speaker Female 48 University Once a year No Yes Image Greek Borrowed Jars Positive Borrowed Word No Avoid metaphor Yes Place 10. English Speaker Female 54 High School Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 11. English Speaker Male 65 University Every 2-3 No Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 12. English Speaker Male 68 High School Every 4-5 Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 13. English Speaker Female 55 University Once a year Yes Yes Image Greek Borrowed Jars Positive Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 14. English Speaker Male 62 University Once a year No Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Positive Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 15. English Speaker Female 25 University Once a year No Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 16. English Speaker Male 17 College Every 2-3 No Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 17. English Speaker Male 26 Elementary School Every 2-3 No Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Replace Omission Yes Avoid metaphor No Place 18. English Speaker Male 18 College Once a year Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 19. English Speaker Male 18 College Every 4-5 No Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 20. English Speaker Male 30 High School Every 2-3 No Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Word Yes Avoid metaphor No Place 21. English Speaker Male 26 University Once a year Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 22. English Speaker Female 53 University Every 2-3 No No Image English Borrowed Jars Positive Borrowed Omission No Equivalent Expression No Place 23. English Speaker Male 30 University Once a year Yes Yes Image English Borrowed Preserved Positive Borrowed Omission No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 24. English Speaker Male 30 University Once a year No Yes Image English Paraphrase Jars Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 25. English Speaker Female 33 College Once a year Yes Yes Image English Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 26. French Speaker Female 24 University Once a year No No Image French Borrowed Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission No Equivalent Expression No Place 27. French Speaker Female 78 University Once a year No No Image Greek Borrowed Preserved Positive Borrowed Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 28. French Speaker Female 64 University Once a year No No Image Greek Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 29. French Speaker Female 53 University Once a year Yes No Image Greek Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word No Equivalent Expression No Place 30. French Speaker Female 23 University Once a year No No Image French Borrowed Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission No Equivalent Expression No Place 31. French Speaker Female 75 University Once a year No No Image Greek Paraphrase Preserved Positive Borrowed Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 32. French Speaker Female 64 University Once a year No No Image Greek Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Word No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 33. French Speaker Female 53 University Once a year Yes No Image Greek Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Word No Equivalent Expression No Place 34. French Speaker Female 68 High School Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Word No Equivalent Expression Yes Place 35. French Speaker Female 70 High School Every 4-5 Yes Yes Image French Borrowed Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 36. French Speaker Male 41 College Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 37. French Speaker Male 30 University Once a year No Yes Image French Borrowed Jars Positive Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 38. French Speaker Female 33 College Once a year Yes Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 39. French Speaker Male 34 College Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 40. French Speaker Female 46 University Once a year No Yes Image Greek Borrowed Preserved Positive Borrowed Word No Avoid metaphor Yes Place 41. French Speaker Female 51 High School Every 2-3 Yes Yes Image French Borrowed Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 42. French Speaker Male 62 University Every 2-3 No Yes Image French Borrowed Preserved Positive Replace Omission Yes Equivalent Expression Yes Place 43. French Speaker Male 67 High School Every 4-5 Yes Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Negative Replace Word Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 44. French Speaker Female 58 University Once a year Yes Yes Image Greek Paraphrase Jars Positive Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 45. French Speaker Male 62 University Once a year No Yes Image French Borrowed Preserved Positive Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 46. French Speaker Female 25 University Once a year No Yes Image French Paraphrase Preserved Negative Borrowed Omission Yes Equivalent Expression No Place 47. 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