Ethnocentric and Eurocentric Translations - Research Paper Example

Running Head: Ethnocentri and Eurocentri Ethnocentric and Eurocentric Translations s Introduction Culture has the capability to influence the human activities in their personal, social and expressive contexts. The language is an expression of culture that plays the role of a social institution and supports all of these aspects of culture. The human activities related with the language are, therefore, highly influenced by the cultural values and backgrounds. Translation plays a vital role in the construction of linguistic ideologies as it works for the transposition of the thoughts expressed in one language to another. Translation performs the process of decoding, recoding and encoding of thoughts, ideas, expressions, values and information from one culture to another. In the multicultural context, the role of the translator becomes very sensitive and responsible because while doing the translations, he has to take the major decisions regarding the elimination or inclusion of some particular words and phrases. These decisions of the translators are highly influenced by their cultural ideologies and it is observed that the phenomenon of ethnocentricity and euro centricity have an active and defining role to play in the situation. The following discussion aims to analyze the perspectives of the translators when they translate text from a European to non European language and from a non European to European language. The essay highlights the role of the cultural affiliations in this context and explains how the decisions of translators regarding the selection of words and phrases are influenced by the phenomenon of ethnocentricity and eurocentricity. Furthermore, the essay discusses the role of Eurocentric translations in the colonization and strives to explain how the translations are being used as tool to influence the development and growth of the ideologies and cultural philosophies of the nations. The essay also presents the theoretical background of translations in the cultural context to explain different approaches towards the use of translations as tool to promote and influence cultural progressions. Translators and Ethnocentricity The cultural identities have the tendency to strongly influence the behaviors, acts and attitudes of the people in each and every facet of their lives. The cultural competencies take the shape of very complex phenomenon when a translator came across this issue. The translator can best perform its responsibilities when he is well aware of the complexities that exist between different cultures and he knows how to justifiably deal with the cultural issues while translating the material from one language to another. (Lefevere and André, 1992) A good translator is supposed to be well aware of the importance and role of the differences between different cultures (Brislin and Richard, 1976). However, there is also possibility that the translator acts as an ambassador of a particular culture and neglects the depth of the other cultural contribution by translating it with less effective words, phrases or language. Earlier the translator was not exposed to the concept of cultural differences and he was not supposed to follow the importance of cultural differences while doing the translations. The early definitions of translation also focus upon replacing a word with equivalent text regardless of its cultural expression (Catford, 1965). However, gradually there was awareness about the importance of keeping in view the cultural difference while translating material from one language to other. (Hatim et al, 2006) The awareness about studying the cultural differences during the translations was felt during the time of ancient Rome. Till then, it is supposed that the translator will necessarily get the training about the significance of the cultural identities while translating the materials from one language to another. The translational theories also emphasize upon the importance and significance of cultural differences and view this issue as an influencing factor during the translations (Simpson, 1980). The translators came across the problem of eliminating or including some particular words during the translation when they see that there are some heavy and extra grounded words being used in one language and culture and such words and phrases have no exact substitute in the other language. In this situation, the translator faces the problem of finding out the exact word or phrase to replace those heavy phrases. The words and phrases that are difficult to translate from one language to another often influence the translator’s behaviors and the translational theories (Brislin and Richard, 1976). There used to be a long debate over the issue of paraphrasing some particular phrases using the most appropriate phrases from other language that cannot destroy the meanings of that phrase and can give the exact impression as well. In some cases, the translators also coin some new words or phrase that can express the meanings of the untranslatable cultural bound words. (Dalmeida, 1981) The translation process doesn’t only requires to deal with words and phrases but the translators have to take in to account the cultural aspect of the text that they are going to translate and they have to assure the credibility of the translated text in the eyes of the target cultural group. The entire process depends upon the decision of the translator to focus more towards the source culture or the target culture and this decision or attitude of the translators determines the projection of the culture in the translations. Translations also promote multiculturalism because the translated text supposed to contain the cultural elements of the course group as well as the target group to integrate with the audience. Thus, the translators are not only required to be bilingual but also bicultural or multicultural. The phenomenon of ethnocentricity often guide the working philosophies of the translators and the translators focus more on cultural disposition rather simply translating words and phrases (Bell and Roger, 1991). There is no clear answer to the question whether a translator has to focus on the course culture or target culture but the dominating point of view in this regard favors giving priority to the target culture. The translators often strive to make the translated material acceptable and credible for their target cultural groups. The translation becomes a complicated task in the multicultural environment (Brislin and Richard, 1976). When the source text expresses influential thoughts and cultural values, it becomes difficult for the translators to do an ultimate translation of the text. Experts believe that highly culture embedded translations need to be source oriented and difficult task to do. The translators have to choose the appropriate vocabulary that best describes the concept and thought presented in the source text rather working on word to word replacement. The true expression of thoughts is supposed to be high priority of the translator however, it is thought that the culturally bound text is difficult to translate but when it is done proficiently, the source culture is very well promoted. For example, when different literary works are translated from one language to another in perfect manner, the target audience is allowed to feel and experience the thoughts and philosophies of the course culture and the ideologies of source culture are well transmitted to the target culture (Bell and Roger, 1991). The translators has to choose to eliminate and include the words and phrases from the source text keeping in view that the target readers will receive same meanings, message and style that is described in the source text. The translator can also take help from different concepts and translation approached explained by different translation and linguist experts that show different opinions while translating culture bound text from one language to another. These approaches include “addition, componential analysis, cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, literal translation, modulation, recognized translation, reduction, synonymy, transference, deletion, and combination of these”. The translator can pick from these approaches whatever he think can suit best with his purpose of translation and thus, it can be said that the purpose of the translation determines the decision making of the translator to screen out and include the text as well as to choose the appropriate translation approach. Some of the major translational theories and approaches are described in the next section to explain different options available to a translator (Brislin and Richard, 1976). Theoretical Perspective of Translations in the cultural context The existence of different languages often create desires among different people to see their own languages as flourishing languages of the earth and they often use translation as a tool of oppressing other languages (Catford, 1965). The theorists and the translational experts have recognize the importance of the issue of understanding the significance of the cultural identities during the translations and there have been some theories also developed to explain the expected role of the translator in the situation when he has to decide how to exactly translate particular words or phrase from one language to another. In 1963, Mounin explains that the translator has to perform a sensitive job of translating all the phrases and words of one language in a manner, that the translated items will give away same meanings and depth and fulfill the functions of the text written in the other language (Brislin and Richard, 1976). Mounin emphasizes upon the lexical item translation in such a manner that it can perform the same functions and allow the readers to have understanding of the discussed issue in the same manner as the readers of the other language get. However, this theory was based on the correct sense translation of particular items and phrases rather than emphasizing upon the need that the translator should have adequate background information of different cultures so that he can handle different phrases and words accordingly. (Dalmeida, 1981) In 1964, another linguist expert Nida threw light over the issue and affirms that the translations are not only a linguistic issue but it has to fairly deal with the cultural developments also. When it comes to the role of the language in culture, there arise many problems and complications. Some of the languages have very complex structure that hinders the exact translations of the material and the translator has to think about the cultural significance of the material rather than just focusing on the lexical concerns. Nida presented his ideas about the cultural context of translation through the definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence. The expert explains that the gloss translation allows the translator to truly and fairly translate the material and also allows the readers to understand the cultural values of the other language by reading their literature in their own language (Nida et al, 1982) In 1978, the concept of cultural turn was emerged in the cultural translation studies. Even presented the concept of translation norms and later in 1980, Toury further expanded the concept and explains that the translator has to translate the words by taking it as a unit and he should not go beyond it (Toury 1980). There is strong interaction between the language and the culture but the translators have to perform their duties remain unbiased. The theories of cultural turn imply that the translations can be analyzed in the perspectives of the cultural and political contexts and these ideologies strongly influence the translation of the material from one language to another. Along with the passage of time, new approaches entered the field of the translation and offer certain new ways of thinking about the culture and translation interaction. After 1990s, it became a very common approach to view translations as an indicator of the cultural studies and there were different type of philosophies presented by the experts regarding the role of the translators in the cultural context. (Toury 1980) In 1980, the “skopos” theory was presented by Vermeer that adds the concept of aim and purpose to the translations. He explains that the purpose of translation determines the method and strategy that a translator adopt for doing the translation and thus, the outcome of the translation process is highly affected by the aims and intentions of the translators. If the translators have an ethnocentric view then his accomplished translations will also reflect his philosophies and if the translator wants to promote the concept to eurocentcity, then also the translations will work for the promotion of this philosophy. Later on 1984, a book was written by Reiss and Vermeer with the title “groundwork for a general theory of translation” and in this book, these experts define some rules that can guide the translator during his work. Their study also affirms that the translations are strongly linked with the cultural studies and translators can also play a major role in the process of intercultural communications. In this way, there were certain more theories and concepts presented by the experts and all of these studies explains that there is strong relationship between the culture and the translation and it is also very obvious that the translator can be affected from the cultural background during his work and the outcome of his work can also possess indication of the cultural influence. (Dalmeida, 1981) An important development took place in the context of translation and cultural studies when Newmark presented some strategies that deal with the cultural issues during the translation process. He explains that the when the source works are transferred in to another language with their original forms, then this process is called naturalizations whereas sometimes the translator paraphrases the word with some culture free words and it is called as the neutralization translation. In some situations, the translator adopts the combined strategy to deal with the translation of some words and phrases in order to avoid the misunderstanding and this strategy or translation technique is referred as couplet or triplet strategy of translation. (Newmark, 1988) There are some other strategies also identified by Newmark that can guide a translator during his work. These strategies or translation techniques include descriptive and functional equivalent, explanations as foot notes, cultural equivalent and compensation. The translator can adopt the most appropriate strategy for the translation whatever he thinks suits with the text. (Simpson, 1980) Minabad and Hassan (2004) explain some of the approaches that guide the translators in the cultural context. According to their study, there are usually three options in front of the translator to adopt the most suitable one from these. The translator can with adopt the foreign work within the translated text without providing any explanation of that foreign word or he can include any foreign word along with an extensive explanation of that word. Furthermore, the translator can also rewrite the text in such a manner that it become easy understandable to the readers of the translated language. The researchers argue that culture always remain at very close position to the translations and the translator has to decide up to what level he want to promote one culture and wants to influence the development of the other’s. (Hatim et al, 2006) Colonization and Eurocentric Translations Translations can also be viewed as a tool that the more powerful culture exercises upon the less powerful one. Colonialism and Eurocentric ideology evolved with each other and during the colonial era, there were certain efforts made to impose European viewpoints upon the colonized nations. The Eurocentric translations done during the colonial era are often viewed as important example of the usage of translation for oppression purpose. The colonial era witnessed the evolution of the Eurocentric philosophy and the translations done during that time also clearly followed this philosophy. The colonized culture was commonly missing translated in to the colonizer culture to affect the progression of the culture of the colonized nations. This distortion of cultural ideologies and thoughts was led by the purpose of the translation which was, at that time was to promote the European culture and discourage the development of colonized culture. The English translators translated colonized text in to the English language in such a manner that their translations projected an unrealistic rewritten image of the east. Despite the fact, that this image was unrealistic and biased the world sees the image of east as shown in these translations and in this way, the European induced image about the east was propagated in the world. In this way, the colonizers imposed their ideologies upon the colonized ones. The colonial era’ translations gave the world an impression that the colonized nations were savage and need to be educated whereas; the colonizers’ culture was always positioned as a high standard and refined culture. The dominating approaches of the European translators resulted in such translations that portrayed socially, politically as well as morally inaccurate image of the colonized people because these translations were done with the purpose of influencing the development of the colonized culture and to promote the culture of the colonizers. The biased and ethnocentric translations work for the dissemination of the colonized people as the ideologically motivated individuals and the colonizers used to overwrite the cultural documents of the colonized nations in order to suppress their identities. (Newmark and Peter, 1981) While looking at the cultural developments during the colonial era, it is found that the translations have played vital role in presenting an underestimated image of the colonized people and an inferior image of the colonizers. However, during the post colonial era the translations are often used as the tool of damaging and destroying the image of the colonizers. People often argue that during the colonial era, the strong and powerful people adopted the strategy to influence the cultural development of the colonized people and for this purpose they remain involved in biased translation activities. The colonizers used the translations as a tool of destroying the colonized people. They impose their languages on them and weaken the development of the languages of the colonized nations so that they can reinforce the hierarchal structure of the colony (Newmark and Peter, 1981). However, this approach also seems to be biased and it is often argues that the colonizers not always used the translations as tool to destroy the cultural development of the colonizers and the impression about the role of translators during the colonial era is often portrayed inaccurate and biased. (Simpson, 1980) The translations of the post colonial era are supposed to follow an unbiased and justified purpose rather supporting the cultural development of Europe. The concept of Eurocentric translations seem to lose its strong position in the linguistics and translational grounds and now, the translators are required to do unbiased translations that will not harm the cultural development of any group. The strong impacts of the Eurocentric translations during the colonial era can still be observed and the cultural values of the colonized nations are still struggling for their survival and stability. It shows the defining role of the translation in the promotion and oppression of any culture (Toury 1980). Conclusion The above discussed emphasizes upon the role and responsibilities of the translators in the multicultural context. It is found that translation possess great importance in the linguistic studies because they performs the role of expression and values transposition of one culture to the other. The essay pointed out that the translation of a culture imbedded text is difficult task because the translator has to decide about the elimination and inclusion of certain words and phrases. At the same time, he has also to select the appropriate approach of translating that suits best his purpose. The translation approaches adopted by the translator defines weather he has to give important to the culture of the source text or he has to focus more upon addressing the cultural elements of the target readers. Most of the times, the translators prefer to integrate with the mindsets of the target readers. The phenomenon of ethnocentricity and eurocentricity works very close with the translators and this world history shows that the translations are widely used by the powerful cultural groups to oppress the less powerful cultures. The translations of the colonial era are most important examples regarding the use of translations as suppression tool. The European colonizers mistranslated most of the text of the colonized culture and presented a misleading and wrong impression about their culture in front of the world. The act resulted in the downfall of the colonized culture and the Europeans succeeded to impose their philosophies and ideologies upon the colonized culture. The European perspective was induced I to the colonized culture text to influence its development. At the same time, the European translators also make use of translations to support their vague ideas about the colonized and through mistranslations of the colonized text, they told about the less educated, less refine and low leveled cultural values of the colonized nations. This strategy worked for the promotion and imposition of the European culture upon the weaker cultures of the colonized group of people. The essay explores the importance of translation as a tool that can be used to promote and influence the development of any language. The cultural competencies have appeared as important challenge in front of the translators because he has to take the major decisions regarding the selection of the words and phrases to be translated. The phenomenon of ethnocentricity and eurocentricity used to play major role in determining the decisions of the translators regarding the selection of the words and phrases for the translations. The cultural studies are found closely tied with the translation studies because the translation work is mainly guided by the cultural affiliations of the translators and it is widely observed that the translators used to prefer the development of one language over the other and for this purpose they adopt biased attitude towards the selection and paraphrasing of the material, however, the translators cannot be blamed for the underdevelopment of any language because the use of translation has been done by the dominating political powers to impose the philosophies and language over the weaker ones. The entire discussion can be sum up with the conclusion that the translators are required to focus more upon the expression of cultural values rather replacing the words with equivalent texted materials. They have to assure that the target readers will receive same meanings, message, depth and expression from the translated text as was expressed in the source text. This is a highly responsible and tough task that requires the translators to follow an appropriate translational theory or approach. The progressions tool place in the linguistic context during the colonial era significantly work for imposing the European ideologies and cultural values upon the colonized culture. The era showed that the translation can be used as a tool for promoting the culture and at the same time, it can be used for the suppression of any other culture. However, the post colonial era ask for unbiased role of the translators and ideally speaking, the translators are supposed to transpose the meanings and ideologies of the source text to the translated language rather than work replacements. References Baker, Mona (2005). Translation and Conflict. London and New York: Routledge Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman Group Ltd Brislin, Richard. W. (1976). Translation: Application and Research. New York: Gardner Press Inc. Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Dalmeida, I. A. (1981). "Literary translation: the experience of translating Chinua Achebes Arrow of God into French." Babel, XXVII (1), pp. 24-28. Hatim, Basil and J. Munday (2006). Translation an Advance Resource Book. London and New York: Routledge Lefevere, André (1992). Translation History Culture. 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