Ethnocentrism in Modern Society - Essay Example

Ethnocentrism Human relationships are complex and influenced by the significant variety of factors, such interests, views, convictions, or personality types. The most problematic can be finding a common language with representatives of cultures or ethnicities that are different from personal. Distinct language, attitudes, backgrounds and the low degree of mutual understanding between people can become a real obstacle to communication. In this context, ethnocentrism as a specific way of evaluating others by values and norms of one’s own culture, should be considered as one of strong factors that can impact human relationships and lead to negative outcomes. At present, when the world becomes more multicultural ethnocentrism appears to be important topic to be discussed. The term “ethnocentricity” dates back to the beginning of the 20th century when it was defined by the American scientist William G. Summer in his most popular book Folkways, published in 1907. Although Summer is credited for offering the first original definition of ethnocentrism, its concept was earlier discussed in the scientific circles. (Motyl 152-153)Namely, in 1900 William McGee used the term ethnocentric meaning “the primitive mind-set”. Moreover, during the subsequent decades the concept has been given much attention and further investigated as well as other definitions were suggested. Today, Summer’s definition is widely accepted and is easy to comprehend. Ethnocentrism stays for the tendency of people to maintain the belief that the cultural or ethnic group to which they belong is superior to all the rest in terms of traditions, views, customs, values, behavior, religion, and other. (Kornblum and Smith 61-62) It can be explained as having certain cultural bias that can be both conscious and unconscious, and make one to measure people of other ethnicities from the perspective of one’s own group. In this process, the culture to which one belongs is viewed as ideal model while all the rest can be rated in accordance to the amount of similarities and differences they have with the native, ideal culture. Therefore, ethnocentric person is likely to judge and form an opinion about people by means of applying a certain set of standards and norms that were formed in the process of socialization and formation of the world outlook. The following distinctions between groups in the form of norms and standards serve as the ground for defining unique cultural traits and identity. The belief that one’s cultural traditions and views are the most appropriate, right, and preferred ways of acting can have numerous manifestations. For example, during the Golden Age of the Geek culture people who could speak the Greek language were viewed as intelligent and cultured people while all the rest considered primitive barbarians, often deprived of the ability to follow rules or maintain social order. Similarly, it was common for some Americans who visited the 1988 Olympic Games is Seol, South Korea in 1988, and first learned about the tradition of local people to eat dogs to make jokes about this habit and view it as a nonsense. As a whole, it is possible to find lots of examples of ethnocentrism, each stemming from the differences in the way people from distinct cultures experience the surrounding world and interpret it. People’s convictions about other’s experience can also be ethnocentric and the one’s that do not reflect the real state of things. For instance, it is natural that a person living in urban industrial society to think that tribal communities are free from all the stresses of the modern life. However, obviously, such people also have to take care of food supplies, security, and healthcare, but in their own way. In addition, the ethnocentricity can also be expressed through language, folklore, or proverbs that bear the connotation of one culture superiority. Thereof, it is possible to conclude that any attempt to apply personal cultural experience, convictions and views when evaluating and judging other people is ethnocentric. Roots Ethnocentrism can have different manifestations and forms, depending on roots and causes. In this regard, different authors suggest different types of ethnocentric behavior. For example, Craighead and Nemeroff explain that the degree of ethnocentrism is individual property or, in other words, some people are more ethnocentric while others are less. (518-20) In this context, one’s type of personality is said to be important. Namely, researches show that authoritarian personalities tend to be more ethnocentric. (Craighead and Nemeroff 518-20)Apart from that, ethnocentric behavior can be situational or contextual, which appears due to external factors that form one’s opinion on a group member. An example would be the loss of job due to competition from a neighboring social group. Also, certain negative changes in political relations between two groups can lead to the growing tension among representatives of these groups, fuel ethnocentrism and unacceptance of the other. Finally, the most encountered and the deepest is the existence of ethnocentrism among tribes, nations, groups with different subcultures that have little or no common ground in terms of language, values, traditions, or other variables. There roots of ethnocentrism has been the topic of the specific interest of sociologists as knowing the source of an issue is the first step towards its profound understanding as a whole. At present, the appearance of ethnocentrism can be explained using different perspectives, such as sociopolitical and the evolutionary one. Central in the evolutionary perspective is the presence of archetypes, which represent patterns of though, emotion, and behavior that were inherited from the past collective unconscious experience of the past generations. ("Higher Education Academy" ) Putting it in simple words, archetypes are certain norms or models that were developed in the process of the development of a social group and passed to the next generations to guide them in understanding the world and interacting with the environment. Such archetypes include also the sense of self and sense of others; in-group and out-group members between which the clear line is drawn. Moreover, according to sociologists Herbert Spencer, this sense of belonging to a group was the condition of both establishing social order within the group and surviving through maintaining the feeling of hostility for the out-group members. As a result, it is possible to arrive at the conclusion that ethnocentrism is the inherited property of people, derived from intuitively shared collective unconscious that was developed during the years of the development of a society or a nation. Apart from that, Charles Darwin’s work “On the origin of species” can also be regarded as influential for the concept of ethnocentrism. The famous naturalist persuaded that the general rule of life on Earth is natural selection and the universal goal is survival. Thereof, it is naturally for people to join groups and to compete for resources and for life. In this process, the interests of the group to which one belongs are superior to the interests of all the rest. ("Higher Education Academy") The following ideas are reflected in the sociopolitical perspective on the roots of ethnocentrism as well. They formulated the excuse for European colonial expansion due to spreading the belief that Europeans possess the higher level of culture and are more intelligent than the representatives of other “more primitive” cultures around the world. Therefore, they should be taken under the rule of Europeans, leave their original customs, traditions, and beliefs and adopt those common for Europeans. In addition, speaking in general terms, ethnocentrism is caused by both, and desire to assert personal value and personal superiority over others as well as by the lack of actual knowledge and experience of interacting with the members of other groups, being able to make an insight into peculiarities of foreign cultures and trying to comprehend their sense and essence. The results of this are often negative. Negative effects of ethnocentrism As a way of thinking that places one culture or one ethnos above others, ethnocentrism, obviously, can lead to the variety of negative outcomes for both a person who displays such attitude and to whom it is turned. To start with, ethnocentrism pushes one to making false assumptions about some cultural differences and customs and to forming wrong opinions about a person on their basis. Ethnocentric person uses his/her cultural norms or standards, regardless of whether they are conscious or unconscious, to judge individuals that are different, but this judgment is always biased and subjective rather than reflect the real state of things. Moreover, it is derived from personal life experiences, but not from the actual context. For this reason, it is possible to say that ethnocentric person deludes self and is prone to premature judgments and false generalizations that prevent one from seeing the real picture. In such case, ethnocentrism can make one close-minded and reluctant to accept new experiences or view the surrounding world from a different perspective. Evaluating others on the basis of what one knows and values, a person misses other experiences and opportunities to consider aspects of life that were previously left aside. In the modern multicultural world, the following appears to be quite a negative trait. It is clear that in the worst scenario, ethnocentrism can lead to wars and conflicts, on the international level, and to inequality and discrimination within the society. Colonialism, racism, ethnic cleansing - are all known to the history and all are the products of ethnocentrism, to the great extent. (Craighead and Nemeroff 518-20) In the United States, ethnocentrism led to the years of discrimination of the African-American population and it segregation from Caucasians. In this process people had to put up with inequality in housing opportunities, education, healthcare and labor. As a result, the levels of crimes and conflicts between people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds were common. The following only undermined the well-being of the country as a whole. Consequently, ethnocentrism has the potential to give birth to vanity and arrogance of the representatives of a culture or nation and to the feeling of contempt towards others, which in its turn, result in misunderstandings and conflicts among peoples. At the same time, it would be wrong to regard ethnocentrism in solely negative terms as far as in its moderate form it can be a positive notion for an individual and ethnos. What is meant here is the enhancement of one’s affiliation with the members of the same group, which is essential for realizing personal identity, appreciating self and others, and developing appropriate confidence and self-esteem. In this sense, ethnocentrism can be a condition of maintaining positive group identity and solidarity between the members of one social group. (Craighead and Nemeroff 518-20) The subsequent feeling of security, trust, and mutual appreciation and respect are also crucial for a person to feel comfortable in the society and realize personal belonging to something significant. As a whole, ethnocentrism can be a positive notion when it is turned to cherishing culture without exaggerating its greatness or viewing it as only possible standard for all to follow and support. Ethnocentrism has been actively investigated and researched in the scientific circles. Both, it roots, functions, and problems it can cause constituted specific interest in this regard. Today, it is widely accepted to use the definition offered by William G. Summer, who explained that ethnocentrism stays for the tendency to consider traditions, values, beliefs, and behavior accepted in a particular society as the best and superior to all the rest. The following can be seen in contempt to the practices of other cultures, prejudices and bias concerning one’s intelligence, knowledge, abilities, and other. In this case, ethnocentrism is likely to cause negative outcomes, fueling segregation and discrimination in the society as well as leading to the wars and conflicts on the international level. In contrast, ethnocentrism should not be referred to as a solely negative notion. In fact, on the appropriate level of its expression, ethnocentrism helps one to realize personal identity and develop respect towards people and history of the society one lives in. What is needed is understanding that every culture and every tradition occurs in a specific context and all people have quite different experiences which make them to see and interpret world in their own, specific way. Works cited Craighead , Edward, and Charles Nemeroff . The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology and behavioral science. 2001. 518-20. Print. Read More