The Dark Ages - Essay Example

?THE DARK AGES The dark ages were a period in History which lasted from the fall of the Roman Empire [476 AD] until around 1000 AD. It was so d because life seemed to be stagnant in Europe, there was little activity in the arts and no progress was made in terms of knowledge. However, while Europe was suffering, China and India were flourishing during this time. The prophet Mohamed of Islam was born in 570 AD and many Muslim inventors were inspired to find new technology. These inventions of the Muslim people included everything from medical developments to astronomical discoveries. We will look at some of these inventions to see how they impacted on life and brought light to the dark ages. Ammad Ibn Musi al-Khwarizmi [780-850 AD] was a Persian mathetician, astronomer and geographer. He was born in Chorasmia in present day Iran. Later he studied maths and science at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, Iraq. He is famous for writing the treatise "Kitab al-Jabr Wa l-Mugabala" which translates roughly as "The Book of Reasoning and Balancing” which introduced the first complete system of algebra to the world. Built on the roots of Greek and Hindu systems, the new algebraic order was a unifying system for rational numbers, irrational numbers and geometrical magnitudes. Al-Khwarizmi was also the first to introduce the concept of raising a number to a power. He also introduced the system of decimal positional to the Western world. His work focused on the solving of linear and quadratic equations which was the most comprehensible method of that time. Al-Khwarizmi did extensive work on geography; he compiled the book “The Image of the Earth” in which he gave more accurate coordinates and information on the Mediterranean sea, Africa and Asia which aided in better understanding these areas by providing their Longitudes and latitudes. He also assisted in determining the circumpherance of the earth. In astronomy he developed tables for the moon, sun and the five known planets of the time. These tables aided in the understanding of celestial movement and became the basis for other astronomers in the Western world. Alhazen was a physicist and mathetician who was Born in 965 AD in Basra which is in present day Iraq. He wrote over 200 books; however, his most famous work was the writing of The Book of Optics. This book dealt with all manner of vision related theories and experiments. For instance, he made a study of the passage of light rays through transparent mediums such as air and water, which led to the discovery of the laws of refraction. He also dealt with the theories of physical phenomena such as shadows, eclipses and the rainbow. One such phenomenon, twilight, was researched and he established that twilight only begins and ends when the sun is 19 degrees below the horizon. This discovery helped him create other theories about the atmosphere. Alhazen was the first physician to properly describe the parts of the eye and give a scientific explanation on vision. He was the first to use camera obscura. He disproved the previous theory that rays of light are omitted from the eye which allows a person to see an object; rather, he proved that it is the opposite, light refracts off objects allowing the eye to visualise them. In mathematics he developed analytical geometry in which he established a link between algebra and geometry. Alhazen influenced many Western scientists such as Roger Bacon, John Pecham and Johannes Kepler. The asteroid 59239 Alhazen was named in his honour due to his contribution to the knowledge of physics and mathematics. He died in 1040 AD. Abbas Ibn Firnas [810-887 AD] was an astronomer and poet who lived in the Emirate of Cordoba, in the Spanish region. He is mostly known for an early attempt at aviation. He designed a glider like mechanism which comprised of bird-like wings with feathers; although, it is said that his attempt at flight was somewhat successful, he greatly injured his back when landing. Some of his other inventions include the creation of a water clock, colorless glass, various glass planispheres and corrective lenses. He also developed a chain of rings that could be used to simulate the motions of the planets and stars which greatly aided other astronomers in understanding celestial movements. Firnas created a process for cutting rock crystal, which led to Spain no longer needing to export Quartz to Egypt to be cut; thereby, causing Spain’s profits in cut rock crystals to increase significantly. A statue near the Baghdad international airport of Iraq, as well as another airport in Baghdad is named after Firnas in memory of his contribution to aviation. The crater Ibn Firnas on the moon is named after him for his developments in astronomy. Abu al Qasim al Zahrawi [936-1013], lived in the Caliphate of Cordoba. He is known as the “Father of Surgery”; due, to his considerable contributions to modern surgery. He founded many modern surgical and medical instruments. These include surgical instruments such as instruments used for the inspection of the inside of the urethra, applying and removing foreign bodies from the throat and inspection of the ear. Other surgical instruments that he developed and are still being used today are scalpels, curettes, retractors, specula etc. Al Zahrawi specialised in curing diseases through cauterization. He was also the first to describe ectopic pregnancy and was said to perform the first caesarean. Al Zahrawi described how to ligature blood vessels which led him to perform migraine surgery. This form of surgery is still being performed today as a cure to migraines. He discovered the hereditary nature of haemophilia which aided doctors in identifying and treating the disease. Another incredible discovery of al Zahrawi’s was the use of catgut for internal stitches, it is the only substance that is able to be used for such a purpose; for, and the body dissolves this substance when the injuries are healed. He wrote a medical encyclopedia of 30 volumes and during 5 centuries of the European Middle Ages, his work was the primary source for medical knowledge and was a guide for doctors and surgeons. Al Zahrawi also practiced pharmacology in which he initiated the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation which led to better results when using this medicine. Today numerous discoveries of al Zahrawi’s and his surgical instruments are still being used. It was not only men who contributed to life during the dark ages, but also women. One such woman who left her mark on society today was Fatima Al-Fihri. She was a young noble woman who contributed greatly to education. She migrated along with her sister and father, Mohamed Al-Fihri from Kairouan in Tunisia to Fez in Morocco. Both Fatima and her sister were well educated in the teachings of Islam. They inherited a large sum of money when their father died. With the money Fatima founded the first degree-granting university in the world in 859, situated in Fez, Morocco. Her sister Miriam founded an adjacent mosque and together the complex became the al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and University. Students from all over the world came to study Islamic studies, astronomy, languages and science. Arabic numbers became known and used throughout the world due to the influence of the university. Due, to the notoriety of the University and its diverse students, it aided in establishing cultural and academic ties between the Muslim and Western world. The University and Mosque are still operating today, almost 1200 years later. Fatima al-Fehri has played a great role in the civilization and culture in her community. She migrated with her father Mohamed al-Fehri from Kiroan in Tunisia to Fez. She grew up with her sister in an educated family and learnt Fiqh and Hadith. Fatima inherited a considerable amount of money from her father which she used to build a mosque for her community. Established in the year 859, the Qarawiyin mosque had the oldest, and possibly the first university in the world. Students traveled there from all over the world to study Islamic studies, astronomy, languages, and sciences. Arabic numbers became known and used in Europe through this university. This is one important example of the role of women in the advancement of education and civilization Fatima al-Fehri has played a great role in the civilization and culture in her community. She migrated with her father Mohamed al-Fehri from Kiroan in Tunisia to Fez. She grew up with her sister in an educated family and learnt Fiqh and Hadith. Fatima inherited a considerable amount of money from her father which she used to build a mosque for her community. Established in the year 859, the Qarawiyin mosque had the oldest, and possibly the first university in the world. Students traveled there from all over the world to study Islamic studies, astronomy, languages, and sciences. Arabic numbers became known and used in Europe through this university. This is one important example of the role of women in the advancement of education and civilization Fatima al-Fehri has played a great role in the civilization and culture in her community. She migrated with her father Mohamed al-Fehri from Kiroan in Tunisia to Fez. She grew up with her sister in an educated family and learnt Fiqh and Hadith. Fatima inherited a considerable amount of money from her father which she used to build a mosque for her community. Established in the year 859, the Qarawiyin mosque had the oldest, and possibly the first university in the world. Students traveled there from all over the world to study Islamic studies, astronomy, languages, and sciences. Arabic numbers became known and used in Europe through this university. This is one important example of the role of women in the advancement of education and civil Another famous Muslim female was Maeriam al-Ijliya [944-967 AD], who was an engineer and astronomer. She lived in Aleppo-Syria. She invented a more complex and sophisticated astrolabe. This astrolabe aided in determining the time and when Sallah [Muslim prayers] were to take place. Her astrolabe also contributed to the observation of astronomy, astrology and aided in navigation. This astrolabe was used up until the 18th century in the Western world and helped in geographical discoveries in the Renaissance period. Ja’fir al-Sadiq was born in Medina on 20 April 702 AD. He is believed to be a descendent of the prophet Mohammad and was a polymath, astronomer and alchemist. He created the Ja, fari jurisprudence which became part of Islamic law on matters regarding inheritance, religious taxes, commerce and personal status. He was poisoned by a political rival and died on 14 December 765 AD. His teachings and ideas inspired many other intellectuals such as his scholar Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan a famous alchemist. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan [721-815 AD] was born in Tus in Iran. He was a natural philosopher and is said to have written over three thousand treatises. He was known in the Western world as, Geber, and greatly enhanced chemistry as we know it today. He did extensive work on alchemy and produced many theories. Some of these include: At the time all elements were believed to contain different qualities such as dry, hot, cold, wet etc. Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result such as Cosmos. He believed this would require a catalyst, namely The Elixir, this became known as the Philosopher’s Stone in Western alchemy. He also developed a theory known as the Mercury-sulfur theory, which stated that metals differ from each in so far as they contain different proportions of the sulfur and mercury. These are not the elements that we know by those names, but certain principles to which those elements are the closest approximation, the dry and moist exhalations become sulfur and mercury (sometimes called "sophic" or "philosophic" mercury and sulfur). In nature. He categorized metals and nonmetals which became the basis for the modern classification. He divided metals and nonmetals into three categories. 1. Spirits: which vaporize when heated such as Arsenic, camphor, sulfur and mercury. 2. Metals: These included elements such as gold, copper, tin and iron. 3. Non-malleable substances which can be converted into powders such as most stones. Ja, bir developed the concept of chemical equivalents which indicates that a certain quantity of acid needs to be added to a base in order to neutralize it. He also developed a number of chemical instruments which are used in laboratories today like the alembic and retort. Ja,bir set down descriptions for many chemical processes which are recognized today such as crystallization and various forms of distillation. He also discovered numerous substances such as citric acid, asetic acid, tartaric acid, arsenic and bismuth. He also invented numerous manufacturing processes such as the manufacturing of steel, gold engraving, tanning leather, dying cloth and methods to prevent rust. The crater, Geber, is named after Ja,bir to honor the contribution he made to alchemy and chemistry. Three brothers known as the Banu Musa brothers who studied at the Baghdad House of Wisdom in the 9th century were famous for their works on mechanics. They created various automatic machines and mechanical devices such as the fail-safe system and the clamshell grab. They also invented the first mechanical musical instrument, a hydro powered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. The Banu Musa brothers’ most famous mathematical treatise was the “Book of the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures” in which they detailed calculations on cylindrical and circular objects. Together they made great contributions to mechanics and mathematics and paved the way for more sophisticated mechanical inventions. Al-Kindi was born in 801 in Kufa in Iraq and died in 873 in Baghdad. He was a mathematician, philosopher, physisist. One of his greatest contributions to mathematics was his introduction of Arabic numerals both to the greater Islamic and Western worlds. He was one of the first to work on cryptanalysis and devised new methods to break ciphers. He did various treatises on parallels in mathematics, which contributed to the understanding of geometry and trigonometry. He was able to, through a combination of mathematical and medical principles, to develop a scale that would allow doctors to quantify the potency of their medication. This aided in providing patients with the correct doses of medicine and also the improvement of certain medication. Al-Kindi made various developments in music theory. He further developed the alphabetical annotation for one eighth which is known as a scale today. He began using music as a means of therapy. Al-Kindi made great contributions to Islamic philosophy; therefore, he is known in Islamic history as “The Philosopher”. He wrote various papers on philosophical topics such as God, the soul and prophetic knowledge. He also embarked on a project to translate Greek manuscripts on philosophy into Arabic in order to make them available to the Muslim world. He did various work on the philosophy of astrology and wrote manuscripts detailing how the sun affected the earth and people’s lives; also he used a linear approach as to how the planets affected everything on earth. These astrological ideas inspired others in this field and led to the current astrological system. In conclusion it can be said that there were numerous Muslim inventors who contributed to life in the dark ages. Their inventions illuminated the dark ages for the Europeans and aided them in developing their societies in the middle ages. Many of these inventions are still being used today and form part of well known disciplines such as chemistry, astronomy and algebra. Read More