Dark Ages and Anglo-Saxon England - Research Paper Example

Dark ages and Anglo-Saxon England Dark Age in British history has always been fascinating for those who are concerned about past. Its mystery is not faded through ages, be it the trend of incorporating Arthur in book titles, before this trend or in recent decades. This enthusiasm is due to the little information about this obscure phase of British history. Besides heroic myths in this regard, archaeology also sheds light on Dark Age because it doesn’t take the similar stance. Archaeological studies and evidences put Arthurian myth in clear context and help understand it without being influenced by some myth or legend (Arnold 157). “...The centuries between A.D. 400 and 600,when Roman rule in Britain disintegrated, and the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established, has led many historian to call it the “Dark Age” period of English history”(Woods and Pelteret 119).1 With the empire (Roman) ended, coins were no longer minted in Britain, so the use of money dwindled and long distance trade declined. Some Romano-British towns in England and Wales were abandoned, 2and some rural areas became no-go zones as former regional governors became local warlords and fought over fiefdoms. Compared with other periods of history, little is known about the period following the end of Roman rule, and this era is often dubbed the Dark ages(until Norman Conquest 1066). (Berry and Else 31) This post-Roman vacuum attracted continental invaders. Angels and Saxons-Teutonic people from northern side of Europe entered into the Roman boundaries. They overcome the Romano-British culture and Celts by the end of 6th century. England became predominantly Anglo-Saxon and today English language belongs to them as far as origin is concerned and many places have names of Anglo-Saxon roots (Berry and Else 31). Anglo-Saxons came to England in small groups through sea or Roman roads but didn’t penetrate in Roman towns. Most of them get settled on coastline, made villages and started farming. During fifth century their culture and language was quite dominant in the areas now known as England (Owen-Crocker 21). Historical and archaeological data suggest that no more than 200,000 Anglo-Saxon arrived in Britain around the middle of the fourth century A.D...1,600 years ago, they created an apartheid-like society that oppressed the native Britons and wiped out almost all of the British gene pool according to a new study. By treating Britons like slaves and imposing strict rules, the small bank of Anglo-Saxon—who had come from what is now Germany, Denmark, and Netherlands—quickly dominated the country, leaving a legacy of Germanic genes and the English language, both of which still dominate Britain today.( Ravilious) Another historian Alex Wolf pointed out the dominant social status of Anglo- Saxons. It is evident from the ancient texts, for instance, the laws of Ine, which are written 200 years after Anglo-Saxon arrival. The laws of this period reveal that the life of Anglo-Saxon was more valuable than natives who were named as “Welshman”. Blood money for an Anglo-Saxon was five times greater than Welshman. Ravilious states, “The scientists say native Britons and Anglo-Saxons may have lived in a segregated, servant-and-master relationship. Such a system would give the Anglo-Saxons a strong reproductive advantage, the researchers say.”However, according to Alex Burghart and Sarah Foot have some reservations about the harshness of these attributes.3Sarah Foot, however, considers the research merits too.4Härke states, “Historical evidence shows that these kinds of differences continued until the early seventh century, after which the apartheid-like structure appears to have broken down. Just 300 years of Anglo-Saxon dominance was enough to almost obliterate native Briton’s gene pool and culture.” (as qtd. in Ravilious) Authority of the written word in addition to the oral communication was of great importance (for transformation of Saxons from Paganism to Christianity). Celtic and Roman churches innovated to a full fledged system of literacy in collaboration with Gaulish (who joined them in late sixth century). The objective of such a system was conversion of Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. They revolutionized the book as a representation and stimulation towards their rich culture and distinctive art within a century, which influenced middle ages and beyond (Brown). Each phase (of four Anglo-Saxon phases; Sub-Roman, Insular, Alfredian renewal and late Anglo-Saxon period) brought new developments to the history of book. In the face of the pagan Germanic onslaught, the indigenous British church largely retreated into the ‘highland zone’ (modern ‘Celtdome’).It participated actively in the conversion of Ireland where a distinctive Christian culture emerged, noted for its learning and influenced by its Celtic and British legacies and those of the eastern Mediterranean, Gaul and Spain. Episcopal and monastic organizations were adopted, Latin was learnt systematically as a new language, and a system of scripts was adopted, free from the vulgarisation often experienced in areas of the old empire... (Brown) According to Brown, Anglo-Saxons were undertaken on Celtic and Roman church fronts. Irrespective of some observational differences, these groups worked together for conversion process in England and other parts of continent. Ireland and England’s culture were so similar at this stage that a term ‘insular’ is used for them. Despite both cultures distinctive identity, these cultures were considered as shared. During the seventh century, the Christian culture of Anglo-Saxon England took shape, given substance by the formalization of an ecclesiastical structure throughout England by Archbishop Theodore, a Greek-speaking monk from the Tarsus in Asia Minor, who was appointed to Canterbury in his sixties and was in office from 699 to 690.Theodore and his colleague from Africa—Hadrian, Abbot of St Augustine’s—established a remarkable school at Canterbury which revolutionized learning in England, bringing Mediterranean influence to bear upon a curriculum which focused upon metre(poetic composition),computes(the study of chronology)and astronomy, as well as the study of scripture...The brightest star in this scholarly firmament was Bede(673-735)...(Brown) Irish and English people had faith to the continent and established monasteries which served as esteemed centres of learning for people from other worlds. This continuous literary influence gave rise to the ‘renaissance’ starting in eighth century. According to Alcuin5 York library was one of the finest in that period but couldn’t be saved. Manuscripts and other forms of arts during that period depict the influence of Mediterranean and Oriental in addition to strong relations with Carolingian empire. Southern English ecclesiastics introduced letter trend which as a part of skirmishing monasteries rule (Brown). Brown states, the Mercia weakened by dissent had yielded its supremacy to Wessex, under King Egbert (reigned 802-39) by 830.The middle years of the ninth century witnessed continuing Carolingian relations, but increasingly attention was focused upon a new threat—the Vikings. Lindisfarne, on the other hand got killed during first Scandinavian attack in 793, sending vibes of unrest in West. First Viking army appeared in 865 and by 870 the only resistance in their way was Wessex. During the reign of Alfred the Great (871-99) Viking incursion occurred and settlements established which he successfully managed to control (Brown). Brown further explains that besides arrival of Vikings, religious and cultural decadence of England was major concern of Alfred. For addressing this issue he formed a team of scholars comprising Mercian’s and Grimbald of St Bertin and John of Old Saxon. They translated old English in accordance with then present situation and introduced book learning as spiritual revitalization. English literacy saw a revival. Old insular culture was preserved, new trends were introduced in vernacular literacy and Anglo-Saxon culture became the attribute of continental influence. On political border, it was all set for a new phase of English history which is injected with a new sense of unity. Athelstan (925-39) until the end of his rule started to declare monarchy throughout England, Wales and Scotland. This political stability allowed him to concentrate on diplomatic relationship with the continent and indulge in his love for learning and art by patronizing it. In late tenth century throughout continental borders monastic reform campaign was launched in favour of St Benedict rule.6This era of association between state and church helped art to flourish greatly. Brown states, “Under the patronage of King Edgar (959-75) three great reforming prelates operated: Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury (960-88), Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester (963-84) and Oswald, Bishop of Worcester (961-92: also Archbishop of York, 971-92.” In her book Brown narrates the fall of Anglo-Saxons: The late tenth and early eleventh centuries witnessed renewed disruption, with succession crises, conflict between pro-and anti-reform parties, alliance with Normandy and weak government under Ethelred II ‘Unread’, the ‘ill-advised’ (978-1016).Scandinavian intervention recommenced, this time associated with the ambitions of a centralized Danish monarchy, resulting in the accession of Cnut (1016-35).England became part of a northern, Scandinavian empire: peace was assured7 and the arts once again flourished, patronized by the king and his wives. Continuous conflicts and Cnut’s death caused appointment of another art lover, Edward ‘the Confessor’ (1042-66).The political upheaval helped early English people to grow overwhelmingly. Harold Godwine took charge after Edward’s death; he ruled less then one year but worked on weaving relations on international level. After Norman Conquest in 1066, political life of Anglo-Saxon finished but its cultural identity kept flourishing. By 1087 there was only one English bishop left but it doesn’t refer to under-estimation of Anglo-Saxon contributions to art and culture. Ecclesiastical-service books were continuously remained a point of reflection even after new texts. Many rules of administration were adopted by Normans and Angevins and some are still in use. Anglo-Saxon influence was not to fade away. It effortlessly played crucial role in shaping art, literacy, culture and administrative aspects of not only medieval but modern world as well (Brown). Schaff states, “British Christianity was always a feeble plant, and suffered greatly, from the Anglo-Saxon conquest and the devastating wars which followed it. With the decline of the Roman power, the Britons, weakened by the vices of Roman civilization...From this time begins the immigration of Saxons, Angles or Anglians, Jutes, and Frisians to Britain”(19). These tribes gave Britain a new nationality and a new culture and language, the Anglo-Saxon. Their culture which established the bases of the present people culture and language of England (Angle-land).They basically belonged to the Teutonic race and arrived in England from the Western and Northern parts of Germany, from the districts north of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Eyder, especially from Holstein, Schleswig, and Jutland. Romans can never defeat them; therefore, the emperor Julian declared them to be the most terrifying of all the nations that invaded the shores of the Western ocean. Their physical structure was strong and sturdy with coloured eyes and white skin. They were fiercest fighter who leave their land to slaves and women and fought for land. They used swords, spears and axe with great mastery. They were used to sacrifice in front of their gods (Schaff 19). Sindonius, bishop of Clermont8 said that they never had such cruel and dangerous enemy than Saxons. They defeat and conquer whoever tries to oppose them. When they want to get over someone, they never fail and when they got caught, their escape is guaranteed (as qtd. in Schaff 19). Schaff states, they despise danger; they are inured to shipwreck; they are eager to purchase booty with the peril of their lives. Tempests, which to other are so dreadful, to them are a subject of joy. The storm is their protection when they are pressed by the enemy and a cover for their operations when they mediate an attack. (19) Anglo-Saxons lived in tribes headed by chieftain. During war times a one commander is selected for a short period. Impressed by the climate and fertility of Britain these invaders become settlers and expelled natives or made them slaves. They established eight independent kingdoms; Wessex, Kent, Essex, Northumbria, Mercia, Sussex, Deira and Bernicia. Last two mentioned are considered as one Kingdome (Schaff 19). Todd states9, “Anglo-Saxon dialects formed a vernacular, but a remarkably adaptable one, capable of producing Beowulf, but also able to deal with the technical requirements of government and law, and before long the writing history” (as qtd. in Cameron 4).He further narrates, “The rapid growth of Anglo-Saxon into an expressive language, capable of great subtlety and blunt power, is one of the central facts of early English history. Concealed here is an immense scholarly achievement (as qtd. in Cameron 4). Hines states, it is clear that the views represented by writers such as Gregory and John of Damascus, which were current in the Christian communities of Mediterranean world between the sixth and eighth centuries, were known in Anglo-Saxon England. They are evident, for example, in Bede’s work (ca 672-735 AD), particularly his allegorical interpretation of Solomon’s Temple {De Templo, II (C.C.S.L. 119A:212-3)}, and his account of the artefacts imported to Northumbria from Italy at the end of seventh century {Historia Abbatum 6. See Plummer 1896:369-70, cf. Homily on Benedict Biscop, Homilies I.13 (C.C.S.L. 122:93)}. (313) Visual arts were not only documented in writing but also hold physical existence in Anglo-Saxon Christian communities. Besides material evidence there are beautifully adorned painted boards to decorate church at Monwearmouth. They were evocatively arranged in order to draw a special meaning from the depiction of Virgin, Apocalypse, twelve apostles and other incidents from Old Testament and Christ life (Hines 313). Nudity has little place in Anglo-Saxon literature or art. The Anglo-Saxon did not celebrate the beauty of the human body and, unlike the convention of our own time, rarely indicated sexual activity by depicting a naked couple; instead procreation was signalled by pictures of well-wrapped partners lying decorously side by side. (Owen-Crocker 316) Helmut Gneuss states, in the third Anglo-Saxon period the ‘grammatical’ tradition continued to flourish, as can be seen in Triginta divisiones adapted from Isidore and appended to Aelfric’s Grammar, and in Byrhtferth’s Handboc, which gives seventeen figures of speech with Latin examples and Old English explanations, and for which Bede’s De schematibus et tropis had served as a model.10(as qtd. in Scragg100) Although the church lacked sumptuous sculpture and most of the diagnostic architectural detailing normally associated with Anglo-Saxon buildings, it had much to offer by way of constructional evidence...The techniques and equipment of the Anglo-Saxon builders began to be unveiled: at last it became possible to comprehend these churches not just as specimens of art history, but also as works of constructional engineering. (Karkov 196) According to Brown, assessing the extent of literacy in Anglo-Saxon England is not as easy because of obscure nature of resources. Social class can be used as primary source of knowledge. Considering the upper class limited learning such activities were limited to the church only. However, there is evidence of lower class entering into the learning realm by entering into church. Nuns and other women were also involved in basic level of assistance in producing prestigious works. In late ninth century recordings were done more efficiently. Before this, Famous works carried dedications but real owners remained undocumented. King Athelstan is also attributed as a founder of the royal library and commissioning scholars and monks from other parts of continent. Brown, in her book states, between the late fifth century CE and the Norman Conquest of 1066, Anglo-Saxon England was one of the most sophisticated states of the medieval world. Renowned for its ecclesiastical and cultural achievements, legal and financial structures, many aspects of which were preserved by the new Norman elite, it was a society in which books—such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the writings of the early historian Bede—were of central importance.11 Notes Read More