Fires in the Built Environment - Gothenburg Dance Hall Fire - Case Study Example

Fires in the Built Environment Table of Contents Contents Contents 2 1. Introduction Fires in built environment can be very destructive if not detected and suppress earlier thus it is of great importance to analyse and discuss fire safety issues associated with previous fire incident such as the 1998 Gothenburg club fire where 63 people died. Moreover, development of “green” or sustainable buildings makes fire safety in the built environment more urgent than before as eco-friendly design and innovations seems to contradict some traditional fire safety strategies. Divided into two parts, this report discusses the Gothenburg Dance Hall Fire in the first part including fire safety engineering issues identified, the economic, technical, and environmental impact of such fire, lessons learned from the fire incident, and recommendations to avoid such incident from happening again. Part 2 evaluate the construction method and materials that may be use to build a 20-storey eco-friendly hotel in Cardiff, possible fire safety design, and recommendations for the development of sustainable buildings in the United Kingdom. 2. Part – 1 Gothenburg Dance Hall Fire 2.1 Background In October 28, 1998, a fire occurred in a nightclub in Gothenburg, Sweden and killing around 63 out of 400 people dancing in a crowded dance hall. According to the report of NFPA (2000) or the National Fire Protection Association, the fire happened shortly after midnight in the hall measuring about 32 x 9.5 metres where a Halloween party was being held. Investigation conducted by NFPA shows that the maximum occupancy for the dance hall is 150 people and the building was constructed using a combination of concrete and masonry block while the suspended ceiling was made of acoustical tiles. However, the exact material used in the interior finish of the hall is unknown but some sources say that there were highly combustible decorations in the wall such as wainscoting (boards made of wood), flags and others. Although there were lighted exit signs across the hall, the building has no sprinkler system (p.2). The fire broke out in the southeast stairwell being used as storage of combustible materials and smoke and fire spread into the hall through an open door. In panic because they cannot use the stairwell, people broke windows in the northeast side of the dance hall and jumped 10 feet above the ground. Consequently, about a hundred people were injured, sixty-three died from smoke inhalation, and only 40 to 50 people were rescued by the fire brigade (NFPA, 2000, p.3). 2.2 Fire Safety Engineering Issues According to Dyregrov et al, (2003), the dance hall where the fire occurred is on the second floor with entrance located at one end and emergency exits at the other. The fire actually started in the corridor behind one of these emergency exits which was burning from 20-60 minutes in an enclosed environment. The smoke fumes ignited and fire quickly penetrated the dance hall where people rushed to their safety. Since there is no other exit, people rushed to the entrance door where they got squeezed died and injured. Others jumped 10 feet above the floor through broken windows causing severe injury (p.459). The main objective of fire safety engineering is to have an environment with satisfactory level of safety by complying with prescriptive requirements or standards. For instance, according to Christian (2003), this safety system should be in the design or measures taken to reduce the likelihood of injury or death, property loss, and environmental damage. Moreover, there is no rule as to when fire safety engineering can or should be applied and can vary from building to building. For instance, extending the travel distance a little can be justified if there is an effective alarm system in place or there is a fast and responsive sprinkler that can effectively limit growth of fire (p.22). One of the most evident fire engineering issues in Gothenburg fire incident is the storage of high combustible materials in the exit stairwell which this report considers failure in the building’s fire safety management. Note that the building design includes fire exits but it was used inappropriately by management who in a way ignored fire safety principles. According to Stellman (1999), fire prevention is one of the most effective measures in dealing with fire and regardless of fire safety design quality; safety cannot be achieved without building management’s support. For instance, reducing fire injuries or deaths in the workplace can be achieved by making management more concern and committed to safety (p.41). Undoubtedly, storing materials in the stairwell not only has the potential to cause fire but denied people of means of escape when a fire a broke out. According to Furness & Muckett (2007), it needs human intervention to change potential hazards into risk (p.136), which in real meaning suggest changing management perception of fire safety and acquiring commitment to safety in the workplace. Another fire engineering issue is the absence of fire sprinkler system or any other fire suppression equipment. For instance, the report from NFPA (2000), never mention any fire alarm, fire extinguisher, and automatic sprinkler system in the building (p.2). The absence of these important fire prevention and suppression confirm management’s somewhat negligent attitude towards fire safety. For instance, automatic sprinkler system according to DCLG (2006), can protect life and property and a cost-effective solution to reduce risks created by fire (p.15) but Gothenburg’s club management, despite the fact that there is no fire alarm or a single fire extinguisher while its dance hall accommodates more than a hundred people of the time, ignore its importance and even allowed its fire exit stairwell to be used as storage. 2.3 Impacts of Fires in the Built Environment Study conducted about the Gothenburg club fire suggests that most of those who escaped from fire suffered extreme level of depression and this condition can make people unproductive at times. Fire in the built environment can result to number of economic impact such as job and income losses, property loss and depression of property values, government expending on fire suppression, unnecessary medical expenses, and so on (Blakely & Leigh, 2009, p.64). For instance, according to Hall (2012), fire cost the United States $331 billion in 2009 alone (p.1) while the direct cost of fires in the United Kingdom in 2005 was estimated at £80 million for school fires alone with wide community impact such as loss of facilities, major disruption of health and social services, loss of employment and income, and decreased sales on shops and businesses (Wade et al, 2007, p.3). In 2010 to 2011, 321 fire deaths and 7, 400 fire related injuries out of the 36,000 fires were recorded in the UK and most of these fires occurred in the built environment such as homes and other buildings (EFRA, 2012, p.1). Figure 2- Impact of Fires in the United Kingdom Moreover, in relation to these statistics the 2009-2010 report from the UK National Statistics suggest that 32% of fires occurred in dwellings while 22% for other buildings which is almost similar in 2008-2009 (National Statistics, 2012, p.5). Figure 3 - UK Fires in the built environment These fires would undoubtedly cause some economic impact as according to EFRA (2012), is causing the UK about £7.03 billion since 2004 (p.1). The environmental of fires in the built environment according to Furness & Muckett (2007), is unavoidable as there is always residual risk of spillage and pollution that can damage the environment. For instance, aside from environmental pollution caused by smoke and other gases, discharge of toxic effluent from fire or fire fighting chemicals can harm the environment (p.315). Extensive damage caused by fires not only include loss of life of civilians and fire fighters but human health and environmental damage which according to FOA (2007), is also contributing to global warming and climate change through CO2 emission (p.25). According to the US Fire Administration (2003), repeated release of combustion products and run-off water from fire fighting can result to environmental damage (p.16). For instance, products of combustion and exploding building materials such as asbestos cement roof can result to contamination of areas around the fire site (Hughes & Ferrett, 2012, p.316). The technical impact of fires in the built environment is on the affected building and its design as heat from fires can cause severe structural damage. For instance, a “Black Fire”, a high-volume, high-velocity, turbulent, and ultra-dense black smoke can reach temperature up to 1000 degrees Fahrenheit that can damage steel and concrete (International Association of Fire Chiefs, 2008, p.145). During a fire in the 38-story One Meridian Plaza building in 1991 for instance, the building’s steel frame was severely damaged, caused significant sagging to steel beams, and dislodged the granite facing of the building because of warped steel framing. Similarly, the fire that was started by van filled with explosives in the World Trade Centre in 1993 damaged the floor slabs, electrical, communications, and domestic water system of the building. Moreover, fire walls and doors were penetrated by black dense and extremely hot smoke that quickly move into a number of elevator shafts (Scawthorn et al, 2005, p.88). 2.4 Lessons Learned Lessons learned from a fire in the built in environment similar to the Gothenburg fire incident can be summarized into three important parts. First is the importance of fire safety engineering in the lives of people. Second, the role of management in fire safety, and the consequences of ignoring fire safety rules and standards. The Gothenburg fire incident is good example of how ignorance of fire safety engineering can lead to a number of negative consequences. Note that the building has fire exits and the maximum number of people allowed in the dance hall is 150. However, these fire safety strategies were set aside when club management decided to use the exit stairwell as storage area and allowed approximately 400 people in the dance hall. Similarly, the role of management in fire safety was also ignored as although the club seems profitable, the management did not even consider installing a single fire extinguisher or fire alarm to reduce the risk of fire and its consequences. The consequences of the Gothenburg club fire is not only evident on the number of lives lost and injuries caused many people but on economic, technical, and environmental impact. For instance, the Swedish government spent unnecessary on fire fighting operation, medical care, and others while those that were involved in the fire incident suffered emotional difficulties as well as financial losses. The club management also lost their properties and business due to negligence and undesirable attitude towards fire safety. Moreover, the scale of the incident and intensity of fire is potentially damaging to the structural integrity of the building as well as the environment due to spillage and pollution. 2.5 Recommendation In view of the Gothenburg club fire incident and evident impact of fires in the built environment, this report highly recommends strict observance of fire safety engineering standards. Building management should first consider the safety of the occupants and review their fire safety strategy more often. Management should not think fire safety as a secondary priority as fire kills, destroy properties, and harm the environment. Although installing a fire alarm or automatic sprinkler system cost more, the benefit is far greater particularly in preventing loss of precious lives and property. 3. Part – 2 Evaluation of Building Construction Methods and Materials for 20 storey hotel in Cardiff (Low carbon building with a BREEAM ‘excellent’ rating) 3.1 Complying with BREEAM system and possible construction methods and materials According to Yudelson (2009), design and construction practices that reduce the negative impact of buildings to the environment and occupants result to an environment friendly or green building. Moreover, complying with BREEAM requires “green” practices such as selecting appropriate building location, environment friendly water and energy use, effective waste management, and consideration of indoor environmental quality (p.45). Being involved in the design of a 20 storey hotel intended to get a BREEAM excellent rating, the first consideration will be the erection of the building in a sustainable site with carbon neutral emission. Second, design and construction must ensure the quality of the internal environment by maximizing heating, lighting, air quality, and noise reduction. The building must also encourage low CO2 emissions by introducing cyclist facilities and easy access to public transport. More importantly, construction of the building must prioritize use of recycled materials or those with low embodied energy (Bleakman, 2012, p.1). Construction method and materials that may be used to get an excellent rating or with more than 70% score include “Green” construction method such as Life-Cycle Construction with responsive material sourcing strategy. Life-cycle construction will ensure that the actual building construction will not generate environmental impacts related to material acquisition, manufacturing, distribution, transport, reuse, maintenance, and waste management. Moreover, green construction methods conserve natural resources by recycling old building materials whenever possible to avoid generating waste from demolition of old structures. More importantly, green methods prefer building materials that are eco-friendly, renewable, and safe to human health (Howe et al, 2010, p.219). These include acquisition and installation of materials with low embodied energy comes from renewable source, biodegradable, available locally, durable, aids energy efficiency in buildings, and can help reduce air, land, and water pollution. For instance, concrete, fibreglass, gypsum, timber, clay, and ceramics has lower embodied energy while use of low VOC emission materials like cement paints help reduce air pollution. Similarly, the building may benefit from using reused waste intended for landfill such as flash bricks or use durable and low maintenance PVC pipes instead of galvanized iron. It may also benefit from using precast slabs as they require less energy to construct. Moreover, considering the building’s internal environment quality and efficiency of services, aerated concreted blocks may be use to reduce the cooling loads, dual flush cisterns to conserve water, and CFL lamps to reduce electricity consumption (Masker, 2005, p.17-31). 3.2 Fire Safety Design Strategy Fire safety in green buildings may be a little different considering the impact of eco-friendly design, construction practices, and innovations. For instance, following the internal air quality and energy efficiency requirements for BREEAM, the 20-storey hotel in Cardiff will have more windows or open spaces and will reject the idea of traditional fire suppression systems with ozone-depleting substances (ex. chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochloroflourocarbons, and halons). According to Kubba (2012), international and national codes made some fire protection system “green” to reduce their impact to the environment but they are costly compared to traditional system (p.467). The alternative however, is to install fire alarm and fire extinguishers in smaller facilities and add fire sprinklers to more complex buildings like the Cardiff 20-storey hotel. Note that sprinkler systems cannot harm the environment or internal environment quality as they use plain water and triggered only during a fire. Moreover, air coming from the openings in green building can intensify fire growth thus it is necessary to suppress the fire at its early stages using an automatic sprinkler. In terms of evacuation and means of escape, fire safety in green building seems the same except from limited compartmentation due to energy efficiency and air quality requirements. Resolving this issue may require strategic placement of automatic fire suppression system and identification of critical areas where mechanical smoke extraction is possible. 4. Conclusion/Recommendation Green buildings require fire safety systems that are eco-friendly, efficient, and cost-effective. For this reason, fire safety designers must be present in the early stages of building design and development to ensure compliance with BREEAM. The fire safety design must take into account not only the combustibility of materials that will be use but factors that can significantly affect fire growth. Development of sustainable of buildings in the UK must comply with requirements about fire safety particularly ventilation. One strategy to make the implications of fire safety to green buildings less visible is to separate exits from areas where fire are likely to start. Install fire alarms that can alert occupants and automatic sprinklers that can stop a small fire from spreading. Green structures and fire safety must work in harmony as human life is more important than carbon reduction, energy efficiency, and convenience. 5. 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