Social Learning Theory Goes Beyond the Conditioning - Literature review Example

TAQ 4:

Social learning theory goes beyond the conditioning Conditioning is the environmental influence of behavioral patterns, and it is driven by measurable, observable events and behaviors. Repercussions of a certain behavior have a way of decreasing the rate at which the behavior happens. The repercussions entail positive actions that are known as reinforcement and negative actions that are called the punishment. This concept is viewed as an external effect of a child's behavior (Baumrind, 2003). There are exist two types of conditioning. The classical conditioning occurs where an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response thus attaining a reflex response. Ian Pavlov developed a theory where he observed that the dogs salivated upon seeing the feeder (Baumrind, 2003). This is because the dogs associated food with the presence of the feeder thus the reaction. At this point, introduction of a bell may not elicit the same reactions by the dogs and thus a bell is referred to as a conditioned stimulus and the dogs' non-reaction is an extinction process. The classical conditioning is represented in "Little Albert" experiment where metal instilled fear for a friendly rat and other furred toys in the child. Classical conditioning only applies where there is a need to re-train a reflex behavior (Baumrind, 2003).

The other conditioning is operant conditioning where the response produced not associated with any behavior that the child holds. In this conditioning, reinforcement and punishment can be used to shape behavior (Baumrind, 2003). The use of a Skinner box introduces an animal to the use of a lever to get food, the reinforcement, and an electric shock on the lever to deter the animal from touching the lever (Miltenberger, 2010). There is positive reinforcement, which increases a behavior with a reward and negative reinforcement that increases a behavior, but without reward (Baumrind, 2003). Punishment is meant to decrease a behavior and can be divided into three groups; positive penalty where an unpleasant stimulus is applied, time-out where the child is isolated from the reinforcer, and response cost where application of a penalty decreases a behavior (Baumrind, 2003). If the behavior is not reinforced, extinction can happen with classical conditioning and this development can be followed by extinction burst that means that there could be an increase of a reinforced behavior when reinforcement is withdrawn (Baumrind, 2003).

Reinforcers and punishers may vary from one person to another, and it can be shown by the definition of the outcomes. A fluctuating pattern of applying the reinforcement and punishment makes a behavior to incline more to extinction. There is a likelihood of maintaining good performance even if the reward is not given; even so, there is hope of a reward in the next good performance. Children are known to imitate what their parents do, and this is from an Australian study of Bushmen kids and preschoolers (Baumrind, 2003). Children can copy and imitate everything that a grown up tells them to do without prior meditation of the benefits that arises from doing the things. This behavior contrasts that of primates whose offspring do not imitate their parents' behaviors. The children imitate the adults because they think that the way the adults do is the way everything should be done (Miltenberger, 2010). It is part of the human culture and development to be willing to assume that every action has an unidentified purpose and to copy it (Baumrind, 2003).

Positive reinforcement is defined as the act of rewarding a person for positive behavior. Consequently, negative reinforcement is the act of rewarding a person for elimination of undesirable consequences (Baumrind, 2003). The two forms of reinforcement have ethical consequences. The first consequence is behavior modification and manipulation. The two reinforcements are considered manipulative because they mechanize the actions of an individual (Baumrind, 2003). Positive reinforcement may lead to condescension. To avoid this situation, constructive feedback should be employed, explaining the course of praise. Negative reinforcement is viewed as punishment. Even so, many researchers have put up clear differences between negative reinforcement and punishment (Baumrind, 2003). However, people do not understand the difference between the two and take up negative reinforcement as a form of punishment (Miltenberger, 2010). Negative reinforcement is characterized by the fact that it is geared towards enhancing a particular behavior on a person or people. Punishment is the action that is geared towards reducing or decreasing an intolerable behavior. Reinforcement is also observed as a source of intrinsic motivation. It is realized when the two forms of reinforcement are applied in the right manner (Baumrind, 2003).

Albert Bandura states that learning of behavior is carried out in the environment through processes such as observational learning. He develops the theory by stipulating that the human is active processors of information (Miltenberger, 2010). Consequently, they associate their thoughts by evaluating their behavior and its outcomes (Baumrind, 2003). He stipulates that unless cognitive processes were at work, observational learning could not take place. According to his theory, children are conditioned through observation of the adults around them and how they behave. He illustrates this aspect by conducting the famous Bobo doll experiment. Under the theory, individuals under observation are called models. In a real scenario, the society is full of models that children look up to (Baumrind, 2003). Among these models are parents, characters on children TV, peer friends and teachers (Miltenberger, 2010).

Children are conditioned to follow the examples of behaviors they observe from the above category of people. There are gradual steps that children follow in order to accomplish a complete conditioning as stipulated in the social learning theory (Baumrind, 2003). The first step is that a child is more prone to imitating people it regards with similar traits. The second step is that the people around the child will respond either through reinforcement or punishment. The third factor is vicarious reinforcement where the child observes what happens to others when they imitate or copy others (Baumrind, 2003). Social learning theory inculcates the use of the term identification in relation to the Freudian term that is related to the Oedipus complex. The meaning derived from the word is that the child will internalize or adopt another person’s behavior. Oedipus stipulates that a child can only identify with members of the same sex (Baumrind, 2003). There is a difference between identification and imitation. Identification may mean adapting a number of behaviors while imitation means copying directly what the child observes (Baumrind, 2003).

Animal conditioning

Traditionally, places such as the zoo have been known for entertainment and recreation. Over the recent past however, scientists have turned zoos into centers for studies where they assess the impact of conditioning on the behavior of animals. Berzins, Anderson, and Huber (2013) is one of the studies done in an aquarium to demonstrate the benefit of conditioning in animals. The research shows positive alteration of the environment of animals benefits them in the end. In another study, Litchfield, Foster, and Szokalski (2013) assessed the impacts of education programs on large feline behavior. This research observed thee dissimilar species in two programs varying in interaction with them. Findings suggest that conditioning programs do not alter the wellbeing of the animals.

Wilson and Weiss (2003), conduct a variety of operant and classical conditioning techniques on animals in a zoo. With a focus on veterinary issues, mammals, and husbandry training, the researchers show that reinforcing techniques helped Aldabra tortoises. The researchers conditioned the tortoises classically in 10 to 15 training sessions with click-food combinations. The program led to the tortoises learning the association by the time the researchers had reached the 7th session. The researchers proceeded to operant conditioning thereafter until the tortoises reliably touched the experimental target. Such studies are important as they provide good avenues for attending to animals (Weiss & Wilson, 2003). Further, researchers have shown that operant conditioning and reinforcers influence positive behavior, not only to the animals, but also to humans. Animals depend on reinforcers to know that the actions they have done are good, and with time, the actions become habits. Saying ‘thank you’ to positive behavior leads to an improvement of good behavior. The behavior of those dealing with animals, especially pets, are bound to change because of the constant use of polite words towards animals. Young people taught to use polite words to animals eventually develop robust positive habits (Fodor, Bever, & Garrett, 1974).

Reference List

Baumrid D, (2003) Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child's Behavior. EBSCO Publishing

Berzins, I. K., Tate, E. E., Anderson, and P. A., Huber, D. R. (2013). Correlations between deformities of the spine and swimming patterns. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 26, 75-82

Fodor, J. A., Bever, T. G., & Garrett, M. F. (1974). The psychology of language: an introduction to psycholinguistics and generative grammar. McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Litchfield, C. A., Szokalski, M. S., & Foster, W. K. (2013). Behavioral monitoring of big cats. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 26, 82-104.

Miltenberger, R.G. (2011) Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning Center

Weiss, E., & Wilson, S. (2003). The use of classical and operant conditioning in Aldabra tortoises’ training. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science : JAWS, 6(1), 33–8.