The Role of Motivation in Lifelong Learning - Research Paper Example

The Role of Motivation in Lifelong Learning Chapter I Introduction Lifelong learning has been defined by the Organisation for Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) as the learning that happens between cradle and grave. It encompasses all types learning from early years in childhood until after retirement. Learning may happen in different places and occasions such as through families, communities, schools, work, trainings, etc. The idea behind the concept is that learning is a continuous process and one that has significant impact on the life of the person and the society. Historically, society has done well with the traditional view of learning and formal education. However, technological advances and globalisation call for better ways to help people address the demands of society. It is this zeitgeist that demanded the emphasis and explicit instruction of continuous learning in schools. To be able to perceive life as a continuous process of learning and improvement requires collective awakening and consciousness of every individual. Learning is an innate characteristic and every individual is born with a natural propensity to learn. Research has provided evidence that human beings start to learn in-utero. As one goes through the developmental stages in life however, the desire to learn is either further enhanced or gradually diminished. For some individuals, a college degree seals the deal for education. People realise through job opportunities that they can still add more to their knowledge and skills yet the desire to pursue further education declines with age and comes with the settling feeling that one has accomplished enough. In 1998, the UK Campaign for Learning commissioned a poll about attitudes towards learning of over a thousand adults. “Fifty-three percent of people said they had not taken part in any taught learning (training, classes and so on). And whilst the overwhelming majority (83 percent) saw learning as becoming more important in this century, only 49 per cent actually thought they would be likely to take part in some kind of taught learning in the coming year” (MORI State of the Nation Survey, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2005). This provides additional support to the fact that there is a need to bring individuals from this level of recognition into taking action to further enhance themselves. There is general acceptance about the importance of lifelong learning. The challenge then becomes motivating individuals to become lifelong learners. Experts have a general acceptance of the significant relationship between motivation and learning. In the area of lifelong learning, educational psychologists acknowledge how the theories of motivation come into play as underlying the desire and decision to engage in further education. Motivation to learn is a complex process which Lucas (2005, p. 29) divided into four inter-related elements: readiness, anticipated value, probability and impact. Readiness to learn is manifested by a sense of curiosity, comfort and happiness towards the prospect of learning. Anticipated value refers to the outcomes expected from further education such as better job opportunities. Lucas (2005, p. 29) defines probability as the “probability of learning to be successful.” For instance, if a student fails a subject five times, s/he may rate the probability of passing the test low and may lose interest in learning the subject. Impact in one’s life can be either internal or external. It may create opportunities that will yield significant changes in one’s life or the successful learning may increase the individual’s feeling of fulfillment. Identification of the elements that increase motivation is only the first step; the real challenge lies in actually motivating individuals to learn. Perhaps the key is in identifying what specific factors increases motivation to learn. The most widely accepted approach to motivation is its dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual. It is often described as the feeling of satisfaction or fulfillment about what one has accomplished. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is more externally orientated. Examples of which are salary, job promotion or in cases of children, a treat or a toy. Research has shown that internal or intrinsic motivation has more enduring effects, but the interaction of the two has been considered as most effective in learning. “We all need treats and external feedback, but we also need to be able to cultivate our own internal appetite for learning” (Lucas, 2005). Lucas goes further in explaining that motivated learners carry a positive or optimistic outlook towards life. The explanatory styles of people for experiences of success and failure determine their next course of action. Individuals who are optimistic have learned to get back on their feet and perceive the causes as situational and temporary. Unlike pessimists who believe that their failures are due to permanent characteristics, optimists can easily bounce back from failed experiences. It is crucial therefore, to find ways and means to nurture these attitudes that switch on and sustain the motivation for lifelong learning in people. This research paper was conceptualized in an attempt to address this identified need. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: What motivate students to pursue lifelong learning?; and What factors turns off their motivation to learn whilst undertaking the program? In my encounters with graduate students, I have observed that a significant number of students who enter post-graduate programs do not finish the program whilst there are others who successfully earn the degree. This phenomenon indicates that at a certain point in time, motivation gradually decreases which eventually leads to abandonment of the program. It is interesting to note that at the beginning, these individuals were initially motivated to pursue further education yet there may have been factors that affected their motivation. What are the possible factors that led to such critical outcomes? This study will provide important insight to my work as a future educator. It will be my responsibility to cultivate the spirit of lifelong learning amongst my future students. The succeeding chapter will discuss three studies that provide support and justification for the conduct of this study. The chapter that follows, Chapter III, will discuss the proposed methodology for this research study. Chapter II Review of Related Literature Organisations and individual alike are increasingly becoming aware of the benefits of lifelong learning. It is becoming “the most positive trend of education in recent years,” (Jarrat & Coates, 1995 cited in Keeling, Jones and Botterrill, 1998) “and may provide key to coping with and adapting to current changes in the employment market and technology innovations” (UK Government, 1998 cited in Keeling, Jones and Botterrill, 1998). For employees to respond proactively to the changing demands of the industrial environment, they must embrace pursuing continuing education. Research has demonstrated the meaningful role of motivation in the concept of lifelong learning. Education psychologists have always regarded highly the close relationship between learning and motivation. The purpose of this study is to gather information on the factors that motivate students to pursue higher education and the possible reasons for losing motivation whilst in the program. Five studies are highlighted in the succeeding paragraphs of this chapter that explores the relationship of student motivation and continuing education or lifelong learning. The first study discusses the result of a survey amongst young adults in Switzerland about their willingness to pursue continuing education and training. The second study is part of a longitudinal research program that examines the motivational factors behind managers to participate in ‘work-based’ learning programs. The last study features the motivational factors behind pursuing continuing education specifically in the helping profession. All three studies will be discussed in more detail in the next paragraphs. Buschor, Forrer and Merki (2002) used data from a survey of 18-22 year olds from Switzerland about their cross-curriculum competencies as they transition to working life. The focus of the study is on vocational education and training; thus, the terms “continuing education” and “continuing education and training” will refer exclusively to vocational education training for this study. The study is specifically examined the following themes: “the general willingness to continue one’s vocational education and training; the respondents’ assessment of the necessity of continuing their vocational education and training; and their motivation for continuing their education and training” (Buschor, et al., 2002). The total sample of this quantitative study consists of 14,236 men and 483 women, with 186 individuals who did not signify their sex. Seven hundred twenty (720) of these persons were not with the military, and 372 of them were males whilst 345 were females. Majority of the respondents’ during the time when the study was conducted were between 20-21 years old. The instrument used was developed by Grob and Maag Merki (2001) which measured personal, interpersonal and social competencies. Participants were also asked to rate their willingness to participate in four types of continuing education: “(1) continuing vocational training during one’s worktime with no reduction in wages; (2) paid continuing vocational training during one’s leisure hours; (3) self-paid continuing vocational training in the form of non-organised, autonomous learning activity during one’s leisure hours” (Buschor, et al., 2002). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, as well as cross-curriculum competencies, were measured using a Likert-type of scale, each consisting of five items. The education level of the respondents and his/her father’s education attainment were considered as separate variables for data analysis. Results show that approximately 80% of the respondents rated highly on their willingness to continue vocational education and training within the five years following their formal vocational education program. Response variations were observed when presented with the four types of conditions where they can pursue continuing education. Seventy-five percent (75%) are amenable to attending programs during working hours if their wages are not reduced. Sixty-four percent (64%) were willing to attend paid courses during their leisure time, and only 39% were willing to participate in continuing education if they are taken on leisure time and paid by the participants themselves. Amongst the respondents 83% value the necessity for continuing education. In terms of motivation, 52 % are strongly and 42 % are quite strongly intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation has also been rated highly, by almost 49% of the individuals. The results show that young adults in Switzerland are very interested in engaging in continuing education. More importantly, the proportion of young adults who is willing to participate in continuing education demonstrates intrinsic motivation. “They are also convinced that external pressure would do little to get them to participate in such activities” (Buschor, et al., 2002). This study demonstrates that amongst others, motivation is a strong predictor for a willingness to pursue further education, more than language and proficiency. Buschor, et al.’s (2002) study provides support that there is in fact a general awareness of the importance and advantages of further education. Their study focused on young adults who are still starting out in their respective careers after graduating from formal vocational school. Do their findings also resonate with individuals who have already built a career and have been working for a significant period of time? Kinman and Kinman (2001) attempted to address this question in studying the role of motivational factors in for manger participants to undertake and accomplish further education programs. To help facilitate a culture of lifelong learning, a UK subsidiary of a motor company collaborated with Luton Business School to develop an undergraduate business degree for its employees. The first cohort consisted of 18 senior and middle managers who have been in service with the company for an average of 22 years. “Most had no formal qualifications, and almost all have risen through ranks—often from engineering and technical backgrounds” (Kinman & Kinman, 2001). All participants successfully finished the program. A longitudinal case study was conducted for the company as part of the research and evaluation of the program. This current study was conducted specifically to “examine relationships between in-house delivery of a degree program for managers using work-based learning, motivational orientations to learn, learning styles and the eventual learning outcomes” (Kinman & Kinman, 2001). To achieve this goal, semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants and lecturing staff. To analyse the data, content analysis was employed where data was categorised and coded. Participants identified a range of factors that influenced them to participate and complete the degree program. Most participants are already senior managers and they articulated that one of their motivations in joining the program was to “catch up” with younger executives who are more qualified in terms of degree. Although the company clarified that joining the program will not have any promotional consequences, majority of the participants shared that they one of the reasons for taking up the degree was to gain career advantage. The fear that they might be the next one to go due to downsizing was also mentioned as a deciding factor. Perceived strong pressure from management to undertake the program was also identified as influencing their decisions. The competitive environment was also one of the reasons why the participants decided to join the program. Participants stayed on and completed the program for fear that failure will result in diminished authority and credibility. Managers also expressed their needs to meet the standards that they have set for themselves. “Often expressed was a fear of failing to rise to the challenge, in terms of the cost to self-esteem that perceived failure might bring” (Kinman & Kinman, 2001). These were the recurrent themes from the interviews; however, a few individuals also expressed their wish to continue education and finally earn a degree as a motivation to join the program. These results show that, contrary to widely accepted theory of motivation that individuals are more likely to succeed when they are intrinsically motivated, majority of the motivational factors identified are extrinsically oriented. The authors believed that this phenomenon may be due largely to the participants’ characteristic, that of having an “achievement” orientation towards learning. “Students who are achievement-oriented are driven by a wish for qualifications or other rewards, and by the need to enhance self-esteem through competition, i.e. by obtaining the highest grades” (Kinman & Kinman, 2001). Furthermore, the researchers found that there was a strong resistance amongst the participants about the concept of work-based learning. It appears that extrinsic motivation plays a significant role for work-based learning to be effective. To break the resistance however, a certain degree of intrinsic motivation is required. The participants expressed that “they might have been more intrinsically oriented to study if they themselves had decided to undertake a degree, and one in an area of personal interest” (Kinman & Kinman, 2001). Kinman & Kinman’s (2001) study reveal the interplay of motivational factors to pursue higher education for those with managerial positions in the industrial setting. The next study examines how motivation plays a role in further education amongst nurses. Murphy, Cross and McGuire (2006) conducted a study on the continuing professional education of nurses to “concentrate on discovering the factors that motivate and inhibit participation in CPE for nurses in Ireland” (Murphy, Cross & McGuire, 2006). The concept of lifelong learning is not new, yet the nursing profession has only established strategic approaches about it recently. Data were gathered from 62 postal survey questionnaires returned to the researchers. All of the respondents were females, except for 5. Of the 62 respondents, 62% were in the 25-34 age category, 27% in the 35-44 category and the 9% in the 45-54 category. This quasi-experimental study made use of quantitative and qualitative measures. For the quantitative measures, participants were asked to accomplish the “met expectations” scale, “motivators” scale and “inhibitors” scale. The first two scales are made of 3-point Likert-type scale while the third one is an 11-point Likert-type scale. The “met expectations” scale was used to help “describe the degree to which the employee perceives that the promises that the company has made have been fulfilled or the expectations that the company has engendered in the individual have been met” (Murphy, Cross & McGuire, 2006). The motivators scale measure the importance that respondents attach to certain factors that influenced their decision to participate in CPE. The motivators identified were job-related and personal. The inhibitors scale, on the other hand, asks participants to rate the importance of possible factors that discourage them from participating in CPE. Participants were also asked to provide certain demographic data which were submitted for statistical analysis to determine possible relationships. Participants were also asked to answer open-ended questions which serve as qualitative measures of the study. They were asked to identify benefits – personal and professional – that they have gained from continuous professional development courses. Both the qualitative and quantitative results indicate that majority of the respondents perceive the increase in knowledge and skills from CPE is closely associated with possibility of promotion. “It appears that this is the key motivator for participation in CPE” (Murphy, Cross & McGuire, 2006). Similar to the second study, the motivators appear more extrinsic than intrinsic. The researchers also found out that the factors which serve as significant inhibitors were “all related to issues over which the employer has some control” (Murphy, Cross & McGuire, 2006). Furthermore, participants expressed that the most challenging factor was balancing home and work life. The study recommends that employers and education providers take careful note of motivators and inhibitors for undertaking CPE which may be the key for positive changes. Taken together, the three studies define the role of student motivation in continuing education. The first study establishes the fact that young adults are accepting the importance of continuing education. Still, the question remains whether or not they will take further steps to realise the willingness to continue education once they are in the job. As expressed by the next study, those who have been in the profession for over 20 years are still willing to undertake further education; yet they are factors, specifically external motivations that influenced their decision. In a related study on the motivation of nurses to participate in CPE, extrinsic motivation related to job promotion was mainly identified as the motivating factor. These two studies yield surprising results that challenge the theory of motivation, in that individuals successfully learn throughout life because they are internally motivated. In both studies, continuing education was primarily decided on by the employer and thus, the perception that it will lead to job promotion. Perhaps, this also affected how the participants attributed the causes or motivations for engaging in continuing education. The current study attempts to address this issue by gathering insights from individuals who are currently enrolled in graduate education courses about their motivations for going back to school and the possible inhibitors to successful completion. The design and methodology will be further discussed in the succeeding chapter. Chapter III Methodology Research Design The current research hopes to answer the questions: What motives students to pursue further education?; and What factors prevent them from completing the program whilst studying? The proposed research design is qualitative and exploratory in nature. It will use in-depth interviews and focus group discussions to answer these questions. The use of these two methodologies has been decided because of their complementary strengths, particularly for this type of study. Morgan (1996) stated that “a qualitative researcher may design a study using these two methods because the research question requires both breadth and depth” (as cited in Hesse Biber & Leavy, 2006). The phenomenological approach of this study requires the use of these two methods for it to be cost- and time-efficient. “Preliminary focus groups can provide a useful starting point for individual interviews that involve unfamiliar topics or informants” (Morgan, 1996). The focus group discussions will provide the researcher with an opportunity to identify who among the participants will further enrich the data through individual structured interviews. The data are meant to provide an “understanding of the meaning that these phenomena and events have for the people who are involved in them and the perspectives that inform their actions” (Maxwell, 2005). The researcher must strive to remain true to the voices of the participants and be able to articulate this in the research paper. Qualitative methodology though, does not discount subjectivity of the researcher. In fact, it considers the researcher’s extensive knowledge as a strength in analysis and interpretation. In data gathering, however, it is important that the researcher takes on a learner’s stance instead of wearing an expert’s hat. The use of two research methodologies, focus group and interviews, increases the validity of the data gathered. The methods allow for cross-checking between the two sets of data. Using a small sample size however, does not give the same level of reliability that quantitative data boasts off. However, as previously explained, the objectives and nature of the study is best approach using qualitative methodology. By getting a sample that can be considered as “experts” in the topic investigated, one is able to generate rich information. The strength (or weakness) of qualitative methodology lies mainly on the expertise of the researcher who in this case will be taking on multiple roles, facilitator and interviewer. If the researcher is not able to communicate to the respondents well the objectives and not attentive enough to further probe significant answers, s/he might be losing a significant amount of data. The use of focus group however, prior to interviews is a good way to establish rapport with the respondents. To summarise, the design of the research resonates vividly with the research objective which was stated clearly to provide focus of the study. Researcher’s bias and skills have been identified as potential factors that will confound the data. Nonetheless, the methodology ensures the credibility and validity of results. Sampling Method For this study, graduate students taking education courses have been identified as the primary participants for the focus group discussions and interviews. The previous studies have identified participants in the industrial setting and the helping profession, particularly the nurses. Due to the researcher’s background, it is of interest to find out the motivational factors of those in the teaching profession. Little, if any, has been found in terms of motivation and lifelong learning of education practitioners despite its significance in the profession. The researcher’s network in school will be an advantage in acquiring volunteer participants for the study. “Snowball” technique in sampling can also be employed where other potential respondents can refer their peers/ friends who they perceive will be interested to participate in the research. They will be informed of the nature of the study and the contributions that they can make as primary respondents of the study. There are no general rules for the number of participants in a focus group and the number of focus groups that should be conducted. In most cases, the numbers are decided depending on the available resources and primary objective for conducting a focus group. Stewart et al (2007) suggests as a general rule a composition of six to 12 members for a focus group. “Fewer than 6 participants makes for a rather dull discussion, and more than 12 participants are difficult for a moderator to manage” (Stewart et al. 2007). The types of individuals which are of interest to the research and the complexity of the objective determine the number of focus groups. “When the population of interest is relatively homogeneous and the research question is relatively simple, a single group or two maybe sufficient” (Stewart et al. 2007). For this study, two focus groups will be conducted with eight participants for each group yielding a total of 16. It is essential there is a substantial number of participants from which the pool of interviewees for the second phase of the study will come from. Data Gathering Method The combination of focus group and structured interviews has been found the best approach for the design of this study and in answering the research question. Since the topic is not very sensitive, it is safe to conduct focus group discussions to gain breadth of the research topic. “Two critical elements in successful group research are the recruitment of participants and the design of the interview guide” (Stewart et al. 2007). Because the group is relatively homogeneous, they will only be divided by sex in such a way that approximately equal numbers of males and females are in the group. The agenda is set using the interview guide and this must be articulated clearly to the participants. Kreuger and Casey (2000, p.44) proposes five categories of questions which reflect the process of focus group interview: “opening, introductory, transition, key and ending”. For the opening, the participants will be asked to say their names, what their profession is and what they most enjoy doing when they have free time. Opening questions according to Kreuger and Casey (2000) should be easy to answer, the function of which is to encourage every member of the group to speak early in the discussion process. The focus group will be tape recorded and participants will be informed of this. The introductory questions are the formal starting point of the focus group discussion. These questions are relatively general and open-ended which hopes to generate 100% participation of the members. The question given here will ask them to remember or recollect the experiences that lead to their decision to pursue continuing education. The introductory questions will then be followed by transition questions which “move the conversation into the key questions that drive the study” (Kreuger & Casey, 2000). Transition questions are more specific and in this case, respondents will be asked questions about their experiences with career counseling and career guidance, particularly how they were introduced into the social work profession. The key questions, following transition questions, are considered the most important question often the first developed in the interview guide. While a few minutes can be allocated for the first two questions, the facilitator allots more time (10-20 minutes) for each question. For this part, specific question will be asked related to their perception about lifelong learning and the role of motivation. This may require probing to generate richer data. The final step of the focus group discussion is the ending questions. There are three types of final questions: “the all-things-considered question, the summary question, and the final question”. (Kreuger & Casey, 2000). During this part of the discussion, respondents will share their opinions about how certain types of motivations worked for them and what possible factors can hinder completing the program. Major points will be summarised and participants will be asked if all the salient points were covered. The whole discussion will conclude by asking input from participants about other areas that they find will be important to the research study. The contribution of the participants will be salient points that can be integrated in the in-depth interviews. The semi-structured interview questions are similar to the interview guide in the focus group except that it will already specify some themes that were gathered in the focus group discussion. This is meant to facilitate validity and to further go deeper with the experiences of the participants. The construction of the interview questions therefore, is highly dependent on the results of the focus group discussion. Interviews, in this study, is meant to increase the validity of the data by following up on areas that need clarification. The ability of the interview to give rich information relies greatly on the expertise of the interviewer. The wording of the question is very important as well as the logical order of the questions. According to Bell (2005, p. 158), one must “practise interviewing and managing your schedule to make sure your form of questioning is clear, does not antagonize the respondent and allows your to record responses in a way that you can understand when the interview is over.” The researcher must be attentive and alert, especially in semi-structured interview, to be able to know which areas need more probing and redirect the topic should the respondent steer away from the focus of the study. Participant for the second phase of the study is best identified by their willingness to become respondents. As for interviews, there is no definite number when theoretical saturation occurs but as reflected in Thomson’s (2004) article, sample size is usually dependent on the scope of the research question. Furthermore, Thomson (2004) states that “researchers with more experience and strong interviewing skills will require fewer participants, as they can guide and encourage that participant to reveal the data” (3). There is no easy way to answer the question on the adequate sample size. However, based on the Table of Minimum Sample Size Recommendations for Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs introduced by Onwuegbuzie and Collins (2007), the adequate number of participants for interview method is twelve (12). Data Analysis There are various ways of graphically presenting data qualitative methodologies. Creating geographical maps is one method suggested by to show information and convey meaning and relationships across data gathered. Another way suggested is the creation of unique visual elements to summarize and highlight important data concepts and research implications. In this study, data is treated both qualitatively and subjected to a software program, N-VIVO to analyse parent themes. Content analysis will be employed to draw out recurrent themes from the transcriptions of focus groups and interviews. To validate the findings further, results in summarised form will be presented to the participants. From these discussions, further interpretations may be gathered to improve on the findings and conclusions of the research. Ethics Working with people, whether the research is experimental/ quantitative or phenomenological/ qualitative, researchers must be guided by ethical considerations. Various ethical codes have been published by British Psychological Society (2000), British Sociological Association (n.d.), British Association of Social Workers (1996), American Psychological Association (1992), American Sociological Association (1997) and American Educational Research Organization (1992), among others. These ethical standards and codes will be constantly consulted for direction and insight in the direction and conduct of this research investigation. At every step of the research process, participants will be asked for their informed consent. They will also be assured of confidentiality and remain anonymous in the generation of the results. Adjustments and compromises will be resolved with the best interest of the participants in mind. All their views and ideas will be reflected in the report without bias, and the researcher will guarantee to stay committed in generating an excellent research study that speaks of his knowledge and abilities. Participants, as previously mentioned, have access to the final report that will be submitted. References: Buschor, C.B., Forrer, E. & Merki, K.M., 2002. The willingness of young Swiss to participate in continuing education and training: initial findings from a survey of young adults. Education & Training, [Online], 44 (4/5), pp. 224-232. Available at: Proquest Education Journals http://proquest.umi.com/ [Accessed 08 May 2010]. Hesse-Biber, S. & Leavy, P., 2006. The practice of qualitative research. Londong: Sage Publications, Inc. Keeling, D., Elire, J., Botterrill, D., & Gray, C., 1998. Work-based learning, motivation, and employeer-employee interaction: Implications for lifelong learning. Innovations in Education and Training International, [Online]. 35 (4), pp. 282-291. Available at: Academic Research Library http://proquest.umi.com/ [Accessed 07 May 2010]. Kinman, G. & Kinman, R., 2001. The role of motivation to learn in management education. Journal of Workplace Learning, [Online]. 13 (3/4), pp. 132-143. Available at: Proquest Education Journals http://proquest.umi.com/ [Accessed 09 May 2010]. Krueger, R.A. & Casey, M.A., 2000. Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research, 3rd edition. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Inc. Lucas, B., 2005. Mind your brain: Why lifelong learning matters. Training Journal, [Online] June, pp. 28-33. Available at: http://proquest.umi.com/ [Accessed 07May 2010]. Maxwell, J., 2005. Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Morgan, D., 1997. Focus groups as qualitative research. London: Sage Pulications, Inc. Murphy, C., Cross, C. & McGuire, D., 2006. The motivation of nurses to participate in continuing professional education in Ireland. Journal of European Industrial Training, 30 (5), pp. 365-384. Available at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0309-0590.htm [Accessed 10 May 2010]. Stewart, D., Shamdasani, P., & Rook, D., 2007. Focus groups: theory and practice. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Thomson, S. 2009. ‘Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory-Sample Size and Validity,’ Monash University. Read More