The Role of the Practice Mentor - Research Paper Example

Herbert Simon wrote that learning results from what the learner or the thinks and does. The teacher can enhance learning only by influencing what the student does in order to learn (Herman & Mandrel, 2004. p10). Below is a summary of the basic principles that bring about effective learning. These principles are a collection of research works and analysis of a variety of disciplines. First, students’ former knowledge can deter or help learning. Students go into courses with attitudes, beliefs and knowledge gained through daily life and from other courses. When students bring this knowledge into the classroom, it manipulates how they interpret and filter what they are learning in the new course. If a students earlier knowledge is accurate, robust and activated at the proper time, then this knowledge provides a well-built base for building new knowledge. However, when prior knowledge is inaccurate, activated, inappropriate or insufficient for the task or inert it can interfere with or impede new learning. Students obviously make connections between pieces of knowledge. Those connections form knowledge structures that are meaningfully organized and accurate and hence the students are well able to apply and retrieve their knowledge efficiently and effectively. (Sullivan & Glanz, 2005. p97-101). Conversely, when knowledge is connected in random ways or inaccurately, students fail to apply or retrieve it appropriately (Bigge & Shermis,1998. pp210-231). Students’ motivation decides, sustains and directs what they do to learn. As students go into college and gain greater independence over how, when and what they learn and study, motivation plays a vital role in guiding the persistent quality and direction of the learning manners in which they indulge. When students find positive value in a learning activity or goal, they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn. This happens when they perceive support from their environment and expect to achieve a desired learning outcome. Students must practice to acquire component skills and integrate them, know when to apply what they have learned to help develop mastery (Bigge & Shermis1998 pp210-231). Students must develop not only the component knowledge and skills necessary to perform complex tasks but must also practice on integrating and combining them to develop greater fluency. Finally, students must learn how and when to relate the knowledge and skills they learn. For instructors, it is significant that they build up consciousness of these elements of mastery in order for them to help their students learn more effectively. Goal oriented practice together with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’ learning. Learning and performance are fostered when students engage in practice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of challenge, and is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice coupled with feedback that explicitly communicates about some aspect of students’ performance relative to specific target criteria, provides information to help students progress in meeting those criteria. Students’ current level of development interacts with intellectual, emotional and social climate in order to weight learning. (Bastable,2008. p311-356.) Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they are still developing the full range of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to adjust and monitor approaches to learning. Learners may indulge in a variety of meta-cognitive processes to control and monitor their learning while assessing tasks, evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strategies, and reflecting on the degree to which their current approach is working. Unfortunately, students tend not to engage in these processes naturally. When students develop the skills to engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that improve their performance. Teaching is a multi-faceted and compound activity, often requiring instructors to juggle multiple goals and tasks flexibly and simultaneously (Billings & Halstead, 2005, pg 415 - 460, Sullivan & Glanz, 2005, p 97-101). The following small but powerful set of principles can make teaching more efficient and effective by helping to create a situation which minimises the need to revise policies, content, and materials and support student learning. Implementing these principles requires commitment and time as a result doing this often saves energy and time later on. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that knowledge to form course design and classroom teaching. A variety of student characteristics can affect learning. Effective teaching involves articulating clear expectations regarding learning policies and objectives. (Bigge & Shermis, 1998. pp 210-231). Effective teaching also entails prioritizing on the skills and knowledge we choose to focus on. Too many topics work against student learning. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming expert blind spots. Effective teaching also calls for adopting suitable teaching duties to support our learning goals. Even though students are ultimately responsible for their own learning, the roles instructors assume are significant in guiding students’ behaviour and thinking. Instructors can take on a range of roles in their teaching. These roles should be chosen in support of the instructional activities and in service of the learning objectives. Effective teaching involves gradually refining courses based on feedback and reflection. Instructors need to continually reflect on teaching and be ready to make changes when appropriate knowing what and how to change requires us to examine relevant information on teaching effectiveness. Much of this information already exists or one may need to seek additional feedback with help from the university teaching centre. Based on such data, instructors might modify the learning structure content, format, objectives of a course or adjust teaching (Bigge & Shermis1998 pp210-231). Reflective practice is a helpful process in teacher professional development, both for in-service and pre-service teachers. This digest reviews the techniques, levels, concept for, and benefits of reflective practice. In 1987, the concept of reflective practice was introduced as a critical process in refining ones craft or creativity in a specific discipline. Reflective practice was recommended as a way for beginners in a discipline to know consonance between their own individual practices and those of successful practitioners. Reflective practice involves considering ones encounters in applying knowledge to practice while being guided by professionals in the discipline. After the concept of reflective practice was introduced many departments of education, colleges and schools began designing professional development programs and teacher education based on this concept. As the concept grew in popularity, some researchers cautioned that teacher education programs were focusing on the process of reflective practice while sacrificing important content in teacher education. Researchers recommended that reflective teaching combines philosophy with learning process in order to come up with more contextual approach to the concept of reflective practice. Reflective practice has also been defined in terms of action research. Action research, in turn, is defined as a tool of curriculum development consisting of permanent feedbacks that aim at particular problems. As such, it has become a standard concept in teacher education programs. The teacher educator as role model and researcher encourages students to put theories they have learned in their classrooms into practice. The students analyze their teaching strategies with their mentors and colleagues by bringing information of their field experiences to class. This collaborative replica of reflective practice provides students with suggestions from peers on how to refine their teaching practices and enriches students personal reflections on their work the primary benefit of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching ultimately and style, greater effectiveness as a teacher. Respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice, beneficial challenges to tradition, validation of a teachers ideals and the realization of teaching as artistry, are other specific benefits which have been noted in current literature. Research on effective teaching over the past two decades has shown that effective practice is linked to continuous professional growth, reflection and inquiry. At both the pre-service and in-service levels of teaching, Reflective practice can be a beneficial form of professional development. By gaining a better understanding of their own individual teaching styles through reflective practice, teachers can improve their effectiveness in the classroom (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006. p 32-67). Assessment of learning and teaching is the process of evaluating the appropriateness and quality of the learning process, including pedagogic approach to teaching and performance. Assessment of leaning and teaching includes assessment of how well the teacher performs as learning facilitator, the appropriateness of pedagogic practices and processes including the suitability of methods of assessing student development and progress. This is also referred to as evaluation of learning .Evaluations of teaching typically assess the quality of the methods and forms of learning and teaching within more or single - programme areas (Zachary, 2000. p 89-92). Contract learning is used to improve student learning in continuing education for many professions and postgraduate universities. An educational contract can be negotiated, agreed on and remain contained without being formally written down. A learning contract is a document drawn up by a student and his or her adviser or teacher just like a formal contract. Such documents are known by a selection of titles, for example, personal development plans, action plans, study plans, or learning agreements. (Knowles, 2008. p183-204). The document outlines the contract agreed between a learner and mentor or teacher, a trainee and a trainer, or a junior doctor and consultant. Contract documents vary in content, style and size according to the context in which they are to be used and the needs of the learner. Contract documents specify what will be learned regardless of their f format and size. They also specify how this will be accomplished an agreed period for completion. In addition, contract documents outline the assessment criteria to be used and the evaluation. A contract document helps by describing and underlining all stages of the learning process clearly. Contracting as a process is a continuously re-negotiable working agreement between the teacher and student which emphasises mutuality, learner self-determination and decision-making in relation to learning outcomes. Most importantly, timescales are set for the realistic completion of learning objectives. Agreements reached on what criteria the quality of learning is to be assessed and validated brings about the opportunity for both teacher and learner to re-negotiate the contract according to changing circumstances and needs as this is a key feature of the process (Farquhar & Regian, 1994. p23-28) Formative assessment and regular feedback between teacher and learner provides opportunities for weaknesses and strengths to be addressed. This process teaches learners how to acquire important skills of negotiation and communication, develop enquiry skills essential for future professional practice and to assess their performance. A focus on positive rather than negative aspects of learning helps to develop personal characteristics such as self-esteem and confidence (OReilly,1994. p ii-viii). Features of a learning contract include, a learning plan, initiated and agreed upon between the trainer and trainee and set out in a learning contract. Unlike a legal contract, a learning contract is not set in stone. All aspects of the learning contract are re-negotiable. Both the trainer and trainee must be prepared to be flexible and adopt the original aims and objectives taking into account changing circumstances when necessary. The contract involves changes in attitudes. Both the trainer and trainee must be fully committed towards fulfilling the particular responsibilities on which they have agreed. Anything less will result in the contract breaking down with unfavourable consequences for learning. The contract also recognises the individual differences between learners therefore each contract is negotiated separately on a one-to-one basis. Although they are designed around the same basic principles, meet individual needs, and are individually tailored, each contract is different. Learning contracts also involves the acceptance of a set of educational principles that reoriented learning and re-defines the roles of both trainer and trainee. It is context specific. Learning is not only theoretical but has to have a practical and early application to real-world situation if it is to be seen as relevant by learners. Learners come to realize the importance of other people, activities and situations as learning resources (OReilly, 1994. p 2-8 s). A good mentor has a role of giving praise and feedback. He should also suggest available institutional support to further the new-comers career development and is available to constructively and critically read papers and proposals from his students in order to maintain confidence (Morton-Cooper & Palmer, 2000. p 98-99). He also has a role of advising and making sure the criterion to be followed is clear in order to achieve the desired progress (Zachary, 2000. p34-36). He has to provide advice and explanation on available academic institutional policies and unwritten rules of these institutions. He should also suggest strategies for effective grading teaching and writing. A mentor should also introduce his student to his colleagues from his profession and departments. He should also propose effective ways of interaction with other students and colleagues. In addition, he should also help in sorting out priorities, suggest ways to say no to certain urges and demands as well as acting as an advocate to his student and provide social support. He should also be involved in discussing academic work, progress and offer support where necessarily. The mentor should also evaluate and recognise what is to be offered to his students keeping in mind that one mentor should not expect to fulfil every mentoring duty. (Darling, 1986, p29-30) Learning needs assessment has a fundamental role in training and educating but care is needed to prevent it from becoming a straitjacket. Learning needs assessment is thus crucial in the educational process, but perhaps more of this already occurs in medical education than we suspect. The key lesson might be for those who design new systems of education and training. For example, the postgraduate education allowance system in general practice fails the profession because it does not include needs assessment and so leads to ad hoc education in fulfilling the time requirements of the system rather than the needs of individual doctors or the profession as a whole. On the other hand, basing learning in a profession entirely on the assessment of needs is a dangerous and limiting tactic (Killen, 2007, pp 276-312). Learning needs assessment is a crucial stage in the educational process that leads to changes in practice and has become part of government policy for continuing professional development. Learning needs assessment can be undertaken for many reasons, so its purpose should be defined and should determine the method used and the use made of findings (Mabey & Paul Iles, 1994, p 65-67). Exclusive reliance on formal needs assessment could render education an instrumental and narrow process rather than a creative, professional one. As in most areas of education, for many years there has been intense debate about the definition, purpose, validity, and methods of learning needs assessment. It might be to help curriculum planning, diagnose individual problems, assess student learning, demonstrate accountability, improve practice and safety, or offer individual feedback and educational intervention (Quinn, 1988, p246-284). Published classifications include expressed needs, comparative needs, normative needs, and felt needs. Other distinctions include individual versus group or organizational needs, administrative versus clinical needs, and objectively measured versus subjectively measured needs. Special reliance on formal needs assessment in educational planning could make education a narrow instrumental process rather than a professional and a creative one (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2004, p 32-48). This is especially so in a profession where there is inherent uncertainty and unpredictability. Members of any profession require depth of experience and wide knowledge. Certainly, learning needs should be and can be identified on the basis of what more experienced members of the profession know to be relevant and, what has been experienced but this must not discourage other, speculative or even, more general learning that, at the time, seems to answer no specific need. Small evidence that requires assessment alone improves educational effectiveness and outcomes. Therefore, it must be placed within the wider process of reinforcement of learning, relevance planned learning and practice in the appropriate context. Formal needs assessment might be short of needs not looked into and can identify only a narrow range of needs. Therefore, flexibility and breadth of needs assessment methods should be embraced; in professional education, it is not necessarily defensible to focus all learning on identified needs. In addition, fundamental value where practice is not predictable is wider professional learning not related to a specific need. Group and individual learning needs are different. Group learning needs may produce an average picture that fails to address important interests and needs (Stevens, 2004. p 275-281). Each approach has its effects and uses, but each must be used for the right purpose. Identifying individual learning needs, often not shared by others, may lead to an unimpressive cost-benefit analysis in terms of individually targeted use of educational resources if used inappropriately. Assessment of Individual learning needs is best used in the framework of learning that occurs on an individual basis. Methods of needs assessment can be classified into seven main types, each of which can take many different forms in practice (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2004, p 50-67 ). Gap or discrepancy analysis is a formal method, which involves comparing performance with stated and intended competencies by objective testing, peer assessment or self-assessment and planning education accordingly. Reflection on action is an aspect of experimental learning and involves thinking back to some performance, with or without triggers such as audiotape or videotape, and identifying what could be done better and is done well. The former category indicates learning needs. Reflection in action requires some means of recording, identified strengths and weaknesses at the same time and involves thinking about actual performance. Self-assessment by journals, diaries, weekly reviews and logbooks is an extension of reflection that involves keeping other account of experiences or a diary. Peer review is rapidly becoming a favourite method. The five types of peer review include internal, external, informal, multidisciplinary, and physician assessment. Critical incident review is a technique typically used to make out the competencies of a career or for excellence declaration; it can also be used on a person to identify learning needs. The method involves individuals recording and identifying for example, one happening every week in which they feel they should have done better, weighing the incident by its situation. Practice review is a routine review of notes, letters and charts which can identify learning needs, especially if what leaves room for improvement is to be followed and the format of looking at what is satisfactory is not clearly identified Gupta, Sleezer & Russ-Eft. 2006, p 255-276). Lifelong learning is the life wide, life long, self-motivated and voluntary pursuit of knowledge for either professional or personal reasons. As such, lifelong learning not only enhances employability and competitiveness but also personal development, active citizenship and social inclusion (Schmidt, & Wrisberg, 2008 p243-265). The term recognizes that this kind of learning is not limited to the classroom or childhood, but takes place in a range of situations and throughout life. Change and constant technological and scientific innovation during the last fifty years has had a profound effect on learning styles and needs. Learning can no longer be divided into a time and place to acquire knowledge, time and place to apply the knowledge acquired. There are seven major profiles of professional in the Lifelong Learning fraternity namely trainer, coach, competency assessor, consultant training, project manager, curriculum designer, mentor. Teaching Small, purposeful changes driven by our priorities and feedback are most likely to be effective and manageable (Killen, 2007, pp 276-312). Reflective practice is a helpful process in teacher professional development, both for in-service and pre-service teachers. This digest reviews the techniques, levels, concept for, and benefits of reflective practice. In 1987, the concept of reflective practice was introduced as a critical process in refining one’s craft or creativity in a specific discipline. Reflective practice was recommended as a way for beginners in a discipline to know consonance between their own individual practices and those of successful practitioners. Reflective practice involves attentively considering ones own experiences in applying knowledge to practice under the tutelage of professionals in that particular discipline. After the concept of reflective practice was introduced many departments of education, colleges and schools began designing professional development programs and teacher- education based on this concept. As the concept grew in popularity, some researchers cautioned that teacher education programs were focusing on the process of reflective practice while sacrificing important content in teacher education. Researchers recommended that reflective teaching combine and philosophy on the moral, with process for a more contextual approach to the concept of reflective practice. (Merrill, Ranney & Trafton, 1992, p 277-305.) Reflective practice has also been defined in terms of action research. Action research in turn is defined as a tool of curriculum development consisting of permanent feedbacks that aim at particular problems. As such, it has become a normal idea in teacher education programs. The teacher educator as role model and researcher encourages students to put theories they have learned in their classrooms into practice. Students take along with them information of their field encounters to class and analyze their teaching strategies with their mentors and colleagues. This collaborative replica of reflective practice provides students with suggestions from peers on how to refine their teaching practices and enriches students personal reflections on their work the primary benefit of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching ultimately and style, greater effectiveness. Feedback can be defined as information resulting from ones actions or extra information an entity gets only because of its actions. Feedback describes the situation when information about or output from the outcome of a phenomenon or incident in the history will control the same phenomenon or event in the future or present (Littlejohn, 2007, p. 64-65 ). The event is said to give feedback to itself when an occurrence is part of a sequence of effect-and-cause that forms a ring (Bangert-Drowns et a,1998, p213-238). When the output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input, negative feedback occurs. The system will tend to be stable if the overall feedback is negative. The question we may ask ourselves is whether feedback is necessary for learning or not. Part of learning is not caused by the learners actions, but by other outside causes or the teacher. In view of the fact that feedback is defined as information resulting from ones activities then, feedback is not necessary for learning. Not everyone will agree, but in Laurillards models, the teacher begins half of the activities. Learning without feedback occurs in such cases (Laurillard,1993, p.61). For a learner, action without feedback is completely unproductive. This is precariously deceptive. Often it is true that the learners will supply the feedback themselves. For example in essay writing, it is not true that for learners to learn from their own actions, they should have an external source of feedback. By using their own judgments of the results, learners can learn from their own actions without external feedback. Thus, external feedback is not necessary for all learning (Farquhar & John 1995, pg 27). Therefore, feedback is not sternly necessary for learning; but it is pervasively and widely important. It may be sensible to plan for it openly as an autonomous means. Laurillard (1993, p.62) distinguishes between extrinsic and intrinsic feedback. By intrinsic, she means a necessary result of the action (Laurillard, 1993, p.62). Extrinsic feedback comes from outside of the performer. Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic feedback rewards may cause over justification and a successive decline in intrinsic feedback (Craig, 2007. p546-565). Eventually extrinsic incentives sometimes weaken the inspiration as well. In conclusion, her supreme point is the issue of whether the feedback information arrives in terms of the level of personal experience or of descriptions. Thus, it is actually an issue of the type of information although it is discussed as an issue of source of the information. References: Bangert Drowns, L, Kulik, C., Kulik, J & Morgan, M 1991, Review of Educational Research: "The instructional effect of feedback in test-like events". 61(2), p213-238. 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Nursing times vol, 92 (13) p32-5 Stevens, A 2004, The epidemiologically based needs assessment reviews: Health care needs assessment: AIP, p275-280 Sullivan, S & Glanz, J 2005, Strategies for leadership: Building effective learning communities. Learning & collaboration .Corwin Press, p97-101. Zachary, L J 2000, Facilitating effective learning: The mentors guide relationships. John Wiley and Sons, p34-36, p89-92. Read More