Policy and Practice in the Education of Bilingual Children - Essay Example

Bilingualism A person who speaks two languages is known as a bilingual person. Multilingual is a person who speaks more than two languages. Hence, for both the situations, the term bilingualism can be used. A person who is a multilingual is no longer considered as unusual or extra ordinary. This is because now it a norm in most of the societies to be a multilingual. Using three or four languages at a time is not that of a big deal for anyone. The most common question which is asked by everyone is regarding the child becoming a bilingual. The possibility is either that the two languages are acquired at the same time in childhood. The other possibility is that the other language is learnt after learning the first one. Many of the bilingual people grow up in an environment where two languages are being spoken simultaneously. In countries like America, bilinguals are usually found to be the children of immigrants. This is because these children speak their parents native language during childhood and at home, whereas they speak English in school and with their friends. Therefore, the primary socialization is in the native language, and the secondary is in English. This makes the children bilingual. However, it is not only the immigrants who tend to be bilinguals, but there are many people such that they speak English at school and some other language at the workplace. Moreover, the influence of some significant person also helps a child to develop skills of two or more languages. We can find a number of multilingual and bilinguals in many countries. Moreover, in others, we see that almost each person is bilingual. Talking about India, in some of the parts of India, a child is usually aware of more than one language (Birner 1994, pg.2-3) . Cognition technically refers to thinking. Moreover, the entire process of cognition is related to the processing of human like information and the application of knowledge and change of preferences. This process of cognition is either natural, artificial, conscious or unconscious. This is the reason why they are analyzed from different perspectives and in different contexts. Cognition can be applied to anaesthesia, neurology, and various other subjects such as psychology, philosophy, systematic and computer science. Some concepts such as the mind, reasoning, perception, intelligence and learning are abstract concepts with which cognition is closely related. Cognition can be otherwise regarded as an abstract property of advanced living organisms. Hence, this is the reason why people study it as a direct property of a brain at symbolic and sub symbolic levels (Cognition 2008). Relationship between Bilingualism and Cognition Culture includes some of the key issues around which the debate over bilingual education centres include issues such as that of language maintenance, individual community, nation identity, limited access to social, economic and educational opportunities., . However, the psychologists have grappled this underlying issue over the years whether or not it is from the cognitive perspective that bilingualism should be a desired goal. Bilingualism has major effects on mental and intellectual capacities. Its effects are said to have far-reaching implications on language policy and teaching. The aim to promote bilingualism can be supported by the scholars if the scholars demonstrate the consistent positive relationship. However, if the monolinguals and educators find the bilinguals deficient, than bilingualism in classroom settings should not be the primary education goal (Lee 1996, p.500-501). According to the code-switching hypothesis, children are made flexible in thinking due to the switching of languages. However, this theory is problematic to a certain extent because no such evidence is provided where it is shown that bilinguals code switch during cognitive tasks. Problems that require inhibition of misleading information are most likely to be dealt bravely by bilingual children as they are more advanced at such problems. The general executive cognitive function is said to be accelerated through bilingualism. According to Peal and Lambert, the perspective of how bilingualism affects the cognitive functioning has changed. He has set a trend which shows how advantageous bilingualism is. Moreover, according to Diaz and Klinger, the development of met linguistic concepts can be made more rapid. In addition, it creates ease of learning to read. In an attempt to distinguish the pseudo-bilinguals from normal bilinguals, Peal and Lambart conceived the concept of the balanced bilingual child. The definition from a societal approach was shifted to a cognitive one. Research shows that the long history of bilingual research failed to take into account the language proficiency of the bilingual samples. It was found when an cognitive approach was taken. When a group of monolinguals were compared at par with bilinguals of French-English, results appeared to be in favor of the bilinguals. The field was impacted considerably due to this study. The first impact showed that the child’s language and cognitive development was largely influenced due to bilingualism. Also, it was in favor of the lengthy histories of bilingualism which had employed a societal definition for bilingualism. The second impact was the study alleged a methodological break through. However the studies of the researcher empirically documented the facts that were demanded by the linguist’s case studies for years. Hildegard brought up his daughter as a bilingual. Studies have shown that Leopold, reported adequate language development and minimal confusion between the two languages. In addition, it proved to be advantageous for the mental development of the child. In this research, it was observed that an early awareness of abstract and symbolic nature of language was developed. In this way the child would be freed from the concrete thinking and the tyranny of words. The objective awareness of language is referred to as ‘met linguistic awareness’. According to many studies, the met linguistic awareness is more common amongst the bilinguals when compared with the monolinguals. Tautological and contradictory sentences are also better evaluated by the bilinguals. In order to assess the cognitive developments in bilinguals Duncan and De Avila conducted a research from four Hispanic populations. They differed in their relative abilities in English and Spanish. The research supported the threshold of Cummins thesis, which stated that bilinguals have definite positive cognitive gains (Rosenberg 1987, n.p). The researchers conducted earlier showed that bilingualism has detrimental effects on the children. These may include factors such as weaker linguistic skills, mental confusion, academic retardation, lower IQ scores, etc. Moreover, the modern day researchers say that the previous studies prove to be problematic for the modern day researches due to the poor methodology. This is mainly because the previous studies didn’t take into account factors which includes socio economic status, age, gender, school history,etc., after the 1960’s bilingualism was seen as a positive factor towards the cognitive development. Several studies showed how an individual’s mind starts working and how the ability to analyze linguistic input increases with bilingualism. Moreover, superior performance on concept formation tasks is seen and the improved ability to restructure perceptual solutions. When bilinguals interact and grow up in a different sort of a culture, it gives them a whole new experience and enables them a wider range of perspective as compared to the monolinguals (Lina 2009, n.p). Theories of teaching bilingual students Common Underlying Proficiency Theory (CUP) This theory was formulated by Jim Cummins. It stresses the fact that the two languages spoken by a person, though sounding completely different when used, operate on the functions based on the same central cognitive system. Research of Cummin shows that when working for another language, implicit and melinguistic knowledge can be drawn upon in the course of learning one language. (A guide to learning English, n.d.). It is observed that the development of both the first language and the second language is due to the CUP. A productive and beneficial effect on the other language occurs with the progression of CUP. Through the languages that an individual is trying to learn. This theory also explains the fact that why it is easier to acquire additional languages as all the languages share the same basis of formulation in our central cognitive system and human mind can function in two or more languages with relative ease. Threshold Theory advocates that in a balanced bilingual individual the progress happens through some particular levels. In between levels, the different thresholds are crossed. The. The one to first suggest teh theory was Toukomaa and Skutnabb-Kangas. This theory talks about how positive cognitive advantages are only to be achieved when the first and second thresholds have been crossed, (TEL2L, n.d.). Threshold theory explains that academic ability transfers across languages sich that the students have developed skills in them, according to the observation which is their first language will tend to develop their skills at a faster rate in another language that they strive to learn. Each level in the proficiency theory signifies the level of bilingual ability and is associated with particular cognitive and linguistic consequences. At the bottom floor the child has a low level of competence in both her two languages, at the middle level will be those children who have age-appropriate competence in one of their languages but not in both and at the top level or third floor resides the well-developed bilingual, sometimes termed the ‘balanced’ or ‘proficient’ bilingual, (May, et al., 2004). Strategies Analyzing the theory of bilingualism can help us in order to devise strategies that could be implemented to teach bilingual students. While implementing such techniques one should keep in mind that the environment provided for the students to learn is such that their identities are affirmed and they are willing enough to take risks. The strategies that are to be employed can be deduced on the basis of using English as an additional language as a part of language assessment. The assessment tasks are to be rooted in the supportive context so that the learners could effectively show what they have learned and developed. Certain techniques that could be used are: • Questions Questioning plays an in important part in a bilingual classroom. According to Gibbons, the questions that the teachers ask to their students formulate situations where certain language patterns occur. The use of questions prompts students and encourages them to think and comprehend concepts and also enables them to analyze their own learning strategies, (Gibbons, 2002). Questioning is also emphasized as a tool used to model language that would be used by the learners while discussing the possible answers to the questions. It also helps the teacher to assess the level of students and their retaining power. It also helps them to gain feedback on what they have taught in the classroom. According to Leung and Mohan, asking reasons behind the answers given by the students help extending dialogue and horizon of thinking. • Continued use of the home language Giving importance to a child’s native language can yield results not only in increased self-confidence but also in rapid progress as they develop the skills they have to strengthen learning in English in their home language. Working in both the languages advocates the fact that all languages are equally important and are worth learning. According to Jim Cummins the skills of one language can be transferred or used in the other language, highlighting the benefits of bilingualism. The first language is expected to be used by pupil in their lessons when there is likely to be an increased cognitive challenge. In the second language, cognitive challenge is likely to be high. This happens even when for years the target language has been learnt. (NALDIC, 2002). Permitting the students to speak in their home language for things as discussing concepts or development of new ideas can encourage students to think and respond quickly. Concept based information or knowledge already aids to make input in the other language is made understandable, (Cummins, 2000). They can then ponder on what they have understood and then process this information and report back in English. • Setting Tasks Setting of tasks within the classroom will provide opportunities for teachers and students to get familiar where they are in their process of learning. This would lead the learners to identify what they have learned till date and what they want to learn in the future. In classrooms such activities bring about collaborations and enable the students and the teachers to work as a team. While setting the task the challenges should be kept high, that is the potential of the students should not be underestimated. According to Cummins the level of tasks should be kept on optimum level as it stimulates cognitive learning abilities of the students. This helps the students to draw from their cognitively challenging experiences. (A guide to learning English, n.d.) • Feedback Taking feedback from students help to identify what they have learned and enables the teachers to devise a teaching plan for the future based on the requirements of the class. Taking feedback also ensures that the instructions delivered are effectively understood by the recipients and are acted upon. Analysis of Educational Policy on the education of multilingual children Implementation of educational policies regarding the teaching of bilingual students in schools ensures the fact that proper strategies are used in teaching such students. Such policies support the schools in the process of handling students that come from ethnic minority groups. It also includes the function of data analysis o the growth of these bilingual students in order to come up with better action plans and targets to improve their learning experience. The policy enables all students irrespective of their race, class, gender, language, color, sexuality or religion to gain quality education. It also makes sure that the learning environment is healthy and supportive and encourages students to realize their capabilities so that they can reach their respective goals. The policy in practice should make the students realize their responsibilities and rights as a citizen of a society harboring diverse cultures, (Conteh, 2006). 6In 1996, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) presented to world conference a Universal Declaration on Linguistic Rights asserting as“inalienable personal rights” the“right to be recognized as a member of a language community; the right to the use of one’s own language both in private and in public” and“the right for [one’s] own language and culture to be taught”, (Cook, 2010). Despite of the regulation passed it is observed that many schools ignore the importance of valuing learning of additional language for bilingual students. Many schools stress on a single language that is their formal code of instructions. In such situations the bilingual students tend to stay under achievers in their classroom as another language is forced on to them on the expense of their home language. The educational policies should keep in mind that the integrity of all individual speaking a particular language apart from the local language of the country to be upheld to ensure equality and transparency in education. References Birner, B. (n.d.) Billingualism. p.1-2. Lee, P. (1996) Cognitive Development In Billingual Children: A case for bilingual instructions in early childhood education. [online] [Accessed: 21/06/2012]. Lina (1960) Bilingualism and cognitive development | Best4Future Blog: Bringing Up Baby Bilingual. [online] Available at: http://www.best4future.com/blog/bilingualism-and-cognitive-development [Accessed: 21 Jun 2012]. Sciencedaily.com (2008) Cognition. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/c/cognition.htm [Accessed: 21 Jun 2012]. Unknown. (1987) Bilingualism and Cognitive development: tthree perspectives. In: Rosenberg, S. eds. (1987) Advances in Applied Psycholinguistics. 2nd ed. Newyork:. A guide to learning English, n.d. Second language acquisition - essential information. [Online] Available at: http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/cummin.htm [Accessed 21 06 2012]. Conteh, J., 2006. Promoting Learning for Bilingual Pupils 3-11: Opening Doors to Success. London: SAGE. Cook, J., 2010. Bilingual Education in Policy and Practice: Teaching Under Proposition 227. [Online] Available at: http://eduratireview.com/2010/02/bilingual-education-in-policy-and-practice-teaching- under-proposition-227/ [Accessed 20 06 2012]. Cummins, J., 2000. Language, Power and Pedgogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Gibbons, 2002. Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second. Portsmouth: Heinemann. May, S., Hill, R. & Tiakiwai, S., 2004. Bilingual/Immersion Education: Indicators Of Good Practice, s.l.: Ministry of Education, New Zealand. NALDIC, 2002. Access and engagement in English: Teaching pupils for whom English is an additional language. [Online] Available at: http://www.naldic.org.uk/Resources/NALDIC/Teaching and Learning/ks3_en_eal_access_engag ement.pdf [Accessed 20 06 2012]. TEL2L, n.d. Bilingalism and Bilingual Education. [Online] Available at: http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/BilingEd.htm [Accessed 21 06 2012]. Read More