Leading Educational Change - Research Paper Example

of Salford – The effect of continuous educational change in the personal development – the role of leadership Introduction Generally, it could be stated that the main priority of educational centres around the world is the enhancement of the capabilities and skills of pupils/ students at all levels of education. However, the existence of such a responsibility does not seem to be a crucial issue when planning the structure and the operation of relevant educational institutes. The role of the leader in the formulation of an effective educational strategy seems to be of a significant importance. In this context we should refer to the remarks of Wagner (2001, 379) who noticed that most leaders (as well as state legislatures) when dealing with serious obstacles they tend to apply ‘the most primitive "theory" of human motivation to the problem: an appeal to teachers fear and greed; they also try various forms of intimidation and threaten teachers with the takeover of underperforming schools, or they attempt to bribe them with the promise of bonuses for improved test scores’. It seems therefore that the leader can have a positive or negative impact on the development of education mostly when the plan of intervention (as it is designed and applied by the leader) does not correspond to the real needs of a specific educational centre but it is rather an indication of personal aspects regarding a particular educational issue. For this reason Alford et al. (1994, 369) accepted that ‘to some degree, change in education is stressful, because schools are universal institutions charges with the service of children of citizens who want change and those who resist it; it follows therefore, that too many theorists may choose to ignore educational change or accommodate it, as part of their implicit educational duty requiring that help be given to educational institutions and their charges in their crucial need for curricular relevance’. On the other hand, Bass (2000, 22) does not agree totally with the above view stating that it is rather the influence of the local conditions than of the global ones that can create a turbulence in a particular educational site. More specifically, in accordance with the above researcher, the leader is the most important factor when designing and applying a particular educational strategy. Furthermore, he noticed that ‘sometimes, it is the bold and powerful leader who effectively demonstrates the initiative and responsibility for direction of the group and organization towards its goals; other times, the groups and organizations progress depends on shared leadership, consultation and consensus about its means and ends before it can move forward to achieve its goals’ (Bass, 2000, 22). In the above context, Bottery (2004, 1) stated that ‘educational leadership is taken extremely seriously across the globe; There are now a considerable number of initiatives for its development in places as diverse as Canada, the UK, Sweden, the USA, Singapore, Hong Kong and Australasia; Moreover, some of these programmes aim not only at training principals, but also in gaining overviews of the research in the area, and on the back of such understanding, to generate new insights’. It seems from the above views that the role of leader although significant for the design and the application of a specific educational plan, it can however be differentiated (as of its area of applicability) when there are also other factors that have an influence within a specific educational environment. From another point of view Caldwell (1997, 243) noticed that ‘the scope of reform in school education around the world may be described in terms of megatrends; a megatrend is a major societal change which is consistent in direction, international in scope and enduring in effect’. Current paper examines the role of leadership in the planning and application of an educational plan especially when this one refers to a change that needs to be implemented in a particular educational site. For this reason, the University of Salford (Greater Area of Manchester) has been selected in order to be used as an example of the above interaction and influence in the area of education at all levels (the reference to an institute of higher education is just indicative). The above University has been chosen because of its extended plan of development and continuous change as it has been designed and applied throughout its operation (see also relevant educational site). On the other hand, the analysis of the changes proposed and applied at the particular departments of the above institute will prove its suitability for current study. As of the structure of the study, this has been organized as follows: Chapter 1 presents current literature review regarding the interaction between leadership and educational change whereas Chapter 2 includes the most significant change and development plans as applied in the chosen educational site (University of Salford). Furthermore, Chapter 3 involves in the influence of literature at the educational strategy of University of Salford as it can be observed when comparing the existing plans of the institution with the views of the researchers as developed in the literature review Chapter. The personal recommendations follow Chapter 3 including certain assumptions regarding the material that has analyzed throughout the paper. Finally, the conclusion presents a general view on the subject under research highlighting a few details that have been selected as of particular importance on the issues that have been examined in the Chapters above. Chapter 1 – Literature Review The needs of society for educational change are not stable throughout the years but they rather tend to be differentiated in accordance with the demands of each particular time period as well as of the strengths and the potentials of each state regarding its educational sector. Regarding this issue Wagner (2001, 384) noticed that ‘the problem is that fundamental changes during the last quarter century in the nature of work, in expectations for citizenship, in our understanding of what must be taught and how, and in students motivations for learning - taken all together - have rendered our system of education totally obsolete; now all students need different and more sophisticated skills, such as the ability to solve problems, work in teams, and learn independently’. However, in many cases the institutes which have the responsibility to proceed to specific changes (either on their structure, their operation, their teaching material etc.) fail to complete such a task. In this context, it has been found by Garmon et al. (2003, 219) that ‘when universities undertake partnerships with underperforming and challenging schools, the needs of these schools are often so diverse and so great that a focus on targeted interventions may be viewed as one strategy for transforming the culture of a building into one of collaboration, problem solving, disciplined inquiry (i.e., data-based decision making, action research), curriculum development, and ongoing professional development; in these schools, the translation of research into practice may be only one (critically important) part of a more systemic change effort that introduces multiple collaborative structures and points of entry for teachers professional development and identity needs’. The above study of Garmon et al. refer to a specific ‘weakness’ of educational sites, this of cooperation between them. However, the above ‘weakness’ can be used as an indicator of the problems that the area of education faces in order to proceed to necessary changes towards the benefit of all the parts involved. One of the most important theories in the area of educational leadership should be considered the one stated by Senge in the ‘Fifth Discipline Fieldbook’. In accordance with this theory (which is presented in Figure 2) ‘the domain of action in any organization – the policies, deliberate practices, rules by-laws and channels of authority – can be deliberately designed around learning; if this happens, then it would trigger a ‘deep learning cycle’ within the people of the organization’ (Senge, 2000, 326). Figure 1 – Parts of a leader’s responsibility in an educational environment (as in Senge, 2000, 327) The Senge model as presented above it has been evaluated by other researchers as being one of the most useful tools for the interpretation of the educational change. More specifically, in accordance with Johnston et al. (2001, 94) ‘the Senge model of a learning organization provides a helpful template for conceptualizing progress towards world class schools’. On the other hand, Alford et al. (1994) believe that curriculum is a significant part of any educational change and for this reason its content and structure should be one of main considerations of any state legislator when formatting the relevant legislative text. More specifically, Alford et al. (1994, 372) state that ‘curriculum, by its very nature and function, is a national issue; because the national public uses the results of curricular processes, public policy issues cannot be avoided or obscured, since the compelling concerns question what is being taught, how well it is being taught and learned and, what should be adopted, adapted, modified, or altogether deleted; It follows therefore, that any approach to curricular design, in particular, creative curriculum, must eschew haphazard, simplistic approaches and, instead, incorporate systematic, developmental planning’. Of course there is also the view according to which all the above elements are just of secondary issue when interpreting a specific educational plan. This is because ‘leadership is interpreted uniquely by diverse groups of people’ (Kezar, 2002, 96). Furthermore, in order to prove such an assumption Kezar (2002, 96) made a study examining ‘the application of positionality theory -entailed an ethnographic study of a community college, interviewing 36 faculty and administrators examining leadership beliefs and contextual conditions that impact diverse perspectives’. In accordance with the results of the above study, the ‘various aspects of peoples background appear to be related to their leadership beliefs while role within the institution was related to the way individuals construct leadership and the faculty members personal definitions differed from administrators in the content, structure, and language used to describe leadership; however these definitions seems that they share a common structure even though the nature of the construction is different’ Kezar (2002, 96). Although the above study of Kezar is very descriptive regarding the role and the responsibilities of each member of an educational institute, it does not however explain the criteria of their decision when planning a specific educational strategy. Towards this direction, that is from a more ‘psychological approach’ of educational planning, V. H. Vroom (1964) suggested that people ‘consciously choose particular courses of action, based upon perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs, as a consequence of their desires to enhance pleasure and avoid pain’. In the same context, Porter and Lawler (1968) later developed a theoretical model, suggesting that ‘the expenditure of an individuals effort will be determined by expectations that an outcome may be attained and the degree of value placed on an outcome in the persons mind’ (Pinder, 1984, Isaac, 2001). This model is generally known as expectancy theory but is sometimes referred to as ‘VIE theory, where the letters stand for valence, instrumentality, and expectancy, respectively’ (Mitchell and Mickel, 1999, in Isaac, 2001, 214). Moreover, Skrtic (1991) and Rowan et al. (1983) emphasized ‘the human component in schooling, suggesting that comparisons involving different groups of students are demeaning and stratifying and that effective schools and consultation with teachers recognize "human agency, [and] the values, commitments, expectations, and actions of the people who work in [schools]’ (Skrtic, 1991 , p. 208, in Pena, 1996, 316). The above views can be explained using the study of Senge (1990, in Bass, 2000, 18) who pointed out that ‘organizations need to adapt to their changing environments while local line leaders in the organization and high level executives as well as internal networkers and community leaders are needed in order to motivate and direct the organization and its members, to learn to adapt to the changes; the changes in the economic environment from local, to national, to global markets require new perspectives; furthermore the organization has to learn how to adapt to changes in the diversity of its workforce and customers as well as to the changing demands for social responsibility’. According to the above view, the role of leaders in an educational site is crucial for the planning and the application of an effective and valuable strategy while the personal aspects on specific subjects seem to be of significant importance when designing and executing any strategic educational plan. According to O’Donoghue (1998) the need for educational ‘restructuring’ should be taken into account by the state when designing the educational strategies that will be followed around the country. Moreover, the above researcher highlights that ‘restructuring’ tends to appear three dimensions: ‘a) changes in the way teaching and learning occur in schools; b) changes in the occupational situation of educators, including conditions of entry and qualifications of teachers and administrators, and school structure, conditions of teachers’ work in schools, and decision-making processes; and c) changes in the distribution of power between schools and their clients, or in the governance and incentive structures under which schools function’. The ‘restructuring’ of educational environment although mainly a responsibility of the state – at least in accordance with the above view – it seems that in most cases can operate independently when referring to particular educational sites around the country. In the same context and after examining the elements of success in several educational sites, Kerry (2000, 50) stated that the common ingredients of this success are: ‘Strong management A well – focused curriculum Good teaching High and sustained expectations of attainment Clear communication with parents Essentially what makes the difference are the clarity, intensity and persistence of the school’s work’ Method Purpose Research To advance knowledge Invention To innovate Design To systematize the components of the innovation Dissemination To inform Demonstration To build conviction Trial To test Installation To operationalize Institutionalizations To establish as an integral component of the system Figure 2 – Guba and Clark’s (1965) RD& D model (as in Hopkins et al., 1997, 68) It should be noticed here that although the methods and the theories applied in the area of education tend to differentiate in accordance with the needs and the demands of the particular institutes, there are also certain principles and techniques that are common among all educational sites. In the above category belongs the theory of Guba and Clark (1965) according to which one of the most effective techniques to create a proactive educational site is the application of a series of phases which formulate (when being completed) an integrate Research and Development scheme. The particular stages of this scheme as presented above (Figure 2) should be followed in the turn provided by Guba and Clark and under normal conditions they can lead to the achievement of a specific target which is also included in the scheme. Chapter 2 – Leadership and educational change in the University of Salford University of Salford is one of the most important educational institutes in Britain. Its success should be considered as being the result of a well structured and realistic strategy. More specifically, in accordance with the educational plan applied by the specific university, both the students and the staff of the university can enjoy the following advantages: a) the chance for a continuing professional development based on the principles of equality and diversity among the participants, b) a wide access to all the university’s facilities and programmes, c) customized support for students with special needs, d) a constant development of the curriculum, e) potential for an extended research in all scientific areas and so on. University of Salford – as described above - applies an innovative educational plan in order to achieve the targets set by the institute’s leader. However, it seems that the specific educational site – like many others of its category – faces a series of problems among which the most important seems to be the ‘non – retention’ one. In order to face this issue, the leader of the university has organized a number of workshops and innovative projects while a series of relevant documents have been made available to the institute’s students as well as to any interested party. It should be noticed that although the University of Salford faces several problems regarding the application of its strategy, in general terms its performance should be regarded as positive in most of each units. The success of educational applied in University of Salford is achieved through the use of a specific unit (operating within the specific educational site), the education development unit. This unit which is responsible for the provision of a wide range of services in the university has as its main priority ‘to enhance the quality of learning experiences for staff and students at every level within the university’ (University’s website) Chapter 3 The interpretation of the behaviour of leadership in the University of Salford in accordance with the views presented in the literature can lead to the following assumptions. First of all, the existing leadership although effective currently it is very much likely to be without importance and applicability after a specific period of time – either short or long term – depending on the changes made in the educational site during this period. On the other hand, as Schein (1995, in Bass, 2000, 21) stated ‘the leadership in the organization has to change with the development and maturation of the organization; early on, in creating the organization, the leaders themselves have to serve more as Animators; in the organizations building phase, they must be more Creators of Culture whereas to maintain the organization they need to be more Sustainers of the organizations culture; and when changes in the organization are needed, they must become Change Agents’. The above changes in the behaviour of leaders in an educational site as proposed by Schein should be criticized as of their applicability due to the heavy workload of an educational leader’s daily program. However, change is often necessary in an educational site. Most commonly, this change is characterized as ‘transformation’ of the existing strategy. In this context, London (1989, in Alford et al., 1994, 374) stated that ‘transformation itself can mean a change in the essential nature of something or a change in appearance only while viewed in the context of education, transformation must mean substantive change; example, a reconstruction of aspects of the educational order must include historically conscious and technically skilled persons; the integration and continuity of tested, relevant and traditional practices and customs with new, sound theoretical and pedagogical concepts and ideas which anticipate the future and synchronize the old with the new’. The above transformation can be completed successfully only with the participation of all the members of the educational site. In this way it has be found by Pena (1996, 317) that ‘effective administrators improve school culture by assessing values and beliefs held by school personnel while the consultation and training strategies applied in the site involve principals in preparing staff to analyze interpersonal relations between themselves and students to address evidence of stereotyping and to assess personal levels of commitment to working with and tolerating different students; these efforts also require that principals enable teachers to assess their willingness to extend their roles and to work with the personal experiences and learning styles that diverse students may demonstrate in school’. According to the above view, all the participants of an educational strategy have an important role in its application either at a primary level (this of design) or during its application and evaluation. The changes that have been applied in the specific educational site (University of Salford) cover an extended area offering solutions to a series of problems that tend to appear frequently in the area of education. More specifically, the principles and the methods applied for the structure of the curriculum are respond to the technological perspective of educational change as this has been formulated during the decade of 1960’s and is being applied on a permanent basis by most educational sites around the world. In this point we should refer to the research of Blenkin et al. (1997, 217) who found that the central issue to the technological perspective of educational change is ‘the logic of technical rationality, an epistemology of practice derived from positivist philosophy which maintains that problems of practice are technical in character and that practitioners are first and foremost problem solvers’. Using the above view as a theoretical basis, Blenkin et al. (1997, 217) came to the conclusion that ‘in an educational context, professional practice is directed towards the resolution of well-formed instrumental problems through the systematic application of the theories and techniques of the empirical sciences’. An issue that should be highlighted regarding the specific educational site (University of Salford) is that diversity (in all its aspects) seems to be one of the most significant priorities for the leader of the institute. This strategy is in accordance with the view of Fullan (1999, 2) who stated that ‘diversity means different races, different interest groups, different power bases and basically different lots in life; to achieve moral purpose is to forge interaction and even mutual interest across groups’. Recommendations In order to proceed to an appropriate proposal regarding the changes that should be made in an educational site (no matter of its level of studies) we should primarily identify the role and the responsibilities of participants. Towards this direction, Pena (1996, 322) stated that ‘establishing multicultural education in schools requires that leaders involve teachers, staff, students, parents, and community members in ongoing analyses of organizational structures and cultures’. Besides the active participation of all the members of an educational site a relevant plan should be in accordance with the needs and the demands of the particular pupils/ students. Generally applied educational plans are not of course rejected, however a strategy ‘suited’ to a site’s specific needs should be preferred as of its effectiveness to this site’s problems. When having to decide on a specific educational change a leader must primarily examine all the parameters that will lead to the achievement of the required target. Moreover, the leader must prioritize his/ her tasks and follow a specific route of action (wherever this is possible). In this case, Isaac (2001, 214) noticed that the leader’s activities could be divided in the following sections: ‘a) First, the work must provide a reasonably challenging assignment for the follower, in light of the latters self-confidence, abilities, education, training, skills, and experience; Non-challenging work leads to boredom, frustration and marginal performance; on the other hand, extreme challenges are rejected at a psychological level by the follower as unattainable, b) second, the leader must consider the ability of the follower. People bring to the job differences in experience, talent, skill, knowledge, training, and education levels and c) third, the leader must recognize that followers differ significantly regarding their levels of self-esteem (Moussa, 1996) and self-confidence when attacking a task’. It seems from the above suggestions that the leader should encourage all the efforts made by the members of an educational site (when these are relevant with the target set) while at the same time he should provide rewards in cases that individuals succeed in applying the educational strategy designed and monitored by the leader. Hargreaves et al. (1998) also agree that the educator has to encounter a series of obstacles and issues when having to design a specific educational plan. More specifically, it seems that the following features often appear when having to decide on a particular strategy in an educational site: ‘a) new and often tightly defined curriculum targets, standards or outcomes that emphasize various kinds of higher order thinking, b) more systematic and pervasive forms of standardized testing alongside more ‘authentic’ portfolio and performance – based kinds of classroom assessment, c) innovative teaching strategies such as cooperative learning, manipulative mathematics and reading recovery, d) the impact and rapid spread of new technologies, especially computers, on classroom practice, and so on’ (Hargreaves et al., 1998, 2). In the same context, Fullan (1998, 226) noticed that ‘we certainly need to change schools as they are not now learning organizations; we need especially to ‘reculture’ and ‘retime’ as well as ‘restructure’ schools; Restructuring is commonplace and all it does is alter the timetable or formal roles; Reculturing on the other hand, transforms the habits, skills and practices of educators and others toward greater professional community which focuses on what students are learning and what actions should be taken to improve the situation; Retiming tackles the question of how time can be used more resourcefully for both teachers and students; Reculturing and retiming should drive restructuring because we already know that they make a huge difference on learning, although they are very difficult to change’. In the above context it should also be noticed that the leader in education has to face a series of problems that tend to appear in the area. In this context, Young (1997, 249) stated that ‘a project leader is usually: Responsible for achieving project objectives Clearly in charge and in a position of a high risk Limited in authority to get resources internally and externally Expected to get results, cutting across established customs Operating in unknown and unpredictable areas Susceptible to low credibility with other managers Regarded with distrust by those not involve’ The above attitudes of a project leader should be also characteristics of an educational leader in terms that the latter has in many cases to design and apply specific projects that are considered as necessary for the resolution of particular problems in an educational site. Conclusion The need for educational change has been interpreted differently from the particular researchers. Caldwell (1997, 243) stated that ‘expectations for the further reform of school education in the short to medium term will likely be shaped by critiques of what has occurred thus far and in the broader implementation of what is emerging as ‘best practice’; Expressed another way, these expectations may be discerned in current practice while the time frame is likely to be in order of five to ten years, to the early years of the new millennium’. It should also be noticed that although the projects designed and applied in the educational area are several, in many cases it seems that they do not include the appropriate provisions (regarding the problems in issue) or they lack of effectiveness when applied in practice (although seems theoretically appropriate). Kerry (2000) that studied the above issue specifically in the United Kingdom founded that there are several failures in the educational area of this country. More specifically, he stated (2000, 47) that ‘there are several failures; first the failure to stare far enough into the distance; second, the failure to take account of the context of change in society at large; third, visions of future schools are rarely innovative or inventive enough’ The role of leaders in the formulation and the application of an educational strategy is crucial. As Sergiovanni (1990, in Bass, 2000, 22) has noticed ‘educational leaders, like leaders in any organizational setting will help promote excellence in their schools with good management, good social and interpersonal relations, and expert knowledge of their field; they also promote excellence and good role models of important relevant behaviors and beliefs’. Therefore, leaders in any educational site should be controlled as of their suitability for the specific place. Of course, this control should be conducted using specific rules and to the extension that is considered as necessary for the required target. The respect for the professors’ and the students’ personality has to be a priority for any relevant measure. As of the role of the leader, Caldwell (1997, 255) noticed that ‘the evidence is ‘on the cards’ that the role of educational leader will be larger and richer in the years ahead; this will mean more than knowing about the curriculum, modeling fine teaching and ‘running a tight ship’ in problem-solving and trouble-shooting in the school’s teaching programme; it will mean knowing about major developments in learning and teaching, that yield measurable improvements in outcomes for students’. However, although the above remarks are valuable in order to understand the role of the leader they do not refer on the leader’s particular skills/ abilities at the level that these will be necessary in achieving the above mentioned targets. Moreover, there is no reference to the procedures or the methods that will help the leader to obtain the skills that will help him to adapt in the modern educational environment. An issue that should be taken into account when designing any potential educational plan is that its application may face severe difficulties in accordance with the structure of the site where it is going to be applied as well as the particular characteristics of the leader responsible for this task. For this reason, Fullan (1993, 25) stated that ‘under conditions of uncertainty, learning, anxiety, difficulties and fear of the unknown are intrinsic to all change processes, especially at the early stages; moreover, people will not venture into uncertainty unless they or others appreciate that difficulties are a natural part of any change scenario’. In order to avoid the risk described above a leader in the educational area should consider all the parameters before designing and applying any relevant plan. The provision for possible pitfalls however should be taken in advance (wherever possible). The educational plan applied in the University of Salford as described above proves that when the demands of a specific educational environment are covered at the highest possible level, then the role of the leader involved in this plan should be considered as successful. However, the above assumption may be valid only for a short period – in cases that this plan may be proved inadequate when unexpected problems appear in the area. References Alford, A., Anyanechi, M., London, C., Parris, R. (1994). ‘A Critical Perspective of Multiculturality as a Philosophy for Educational Change’ Education, 114(3): 368-379 Bass, B. (2000). ‘The Future of Leadership in Learning Organizations’ Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(3): 18-26 Blenkin, G., Edwards, G., Kelly, A. (1997). Perspectives on educational change. In A. Harris & N. Bennett & M. Preedy (Eds.) 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