Face-to-face and distance training - Essay Example

?CHAPTER 3 Methodology 3 Introduction The methodology employed to enable the research to achieve the d objectives will be presented in this chapter. It is necessary to choose, reflect upon, evaluate and justify the methods employed to conduct research (Wellington, 2006 at p.22). The research questions will be restated, as an introduction to the discussion of the research methodology and process. In addition, the methods used for data collection will be justified and the study sample presented. The structuring of the pilot study, selection of participants, and questionnaire design will be expanded upon. 3.2 Research questions This research aims to provide some insight into the attitudes of teachers toward participating in training programmes. A number of recommendations which should help to improve teachers’ attitudes should result from the insights gained through the research. The researcher seeks to achieve this by answering the following research questions: 1- What is the relationship between attending face-to-face training and teachers’ attitudes towards participation in training programmes? 2- What is the relationship between using distance training and teachers’ attitudes towards participation in training programmes? 3- What is the relationship between the computer skills of teachers and teachers’ attitudes towards distance training? 3.3 Research Methods In the fields of social science it is recognised that two primary methods of research can prove to be most effective. The quantitative method is one in which research is formalised and structured, and numerically-based information is sought by the researcher, for primarily statistical analysis (Walonick, 2004). Well-designed questionnaires, which use systems such as the Lickert scale to quantify responses to questions, are examples of quantitative methods of research. Reponses to questionnaires can then be grouped, organised and structured, assigned numerical values, analysed statistically, and statistical trends and conclusions can be drawn from data. Another method of research prevalent in the social science arena is qualitative. As implied by the term, this research is less reliant on numerical analysis. Communicated, recorded ideas and words from respondents are used by researchers to determine trends, and to draw conclusions. A less formal, though no less thoughtful, process is entered into to establish the responses, feelings, and responses of respondents, and the advantage of this research is that it relies on interaction between researcher and respondent. While non-quantified data results from interviews, for example, conclusions can still be drawn from meanings communicated by respondents (Walonick, 2004), and the amount of data available to the researcher based on relatively more intimate interaction with the subject, can be most useful. 3.4Research design Weaknesses according to other researchers Boyd (2001) considers that two to ten participants in a research study are ample to reach valid conclusions and Creswell (1998, pp. 65 & 113) recommends “long interviews” with participants. Therefore some realistic assessment of participants’ attitudes, stemming from their personal experiences, is certainly possible from this sample. The concept of research design suggests that a framework and structure for the collection and analysis of data must be established by the researcher (Bryman, 2008). Thus, an approach must be identified and developed and procedures adopted to undertake a particular study. According to the theory of research design, these approaches must emphasise the quality of the selected procedures to meet the definite research criteria (Kumar, 1996). Particularly in social science research, two research methods have proven to be of most use to researchers: the quantitative method and the qualitative method (Kvale, 1996). Quantitative research, as outlined above, serves more effectively to deal with the number-based data obtained from quantitative studies (Rudestam and Newton, 2007). In contrast, qualitative research is more suited to research attempting to establish people’s attitudes, feelings and perceptions. Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience However, the length of interviews was sometimes restricted by interviewees’ schedules: the researcher would have preferred to have more open-ended questions, with up to 60 or 75 minutes of interview time, in retrospect. This would have made it possible for more reciprocity to be apparent in the interviews. Strengths As asserted by Borg and Gall (1996), qualitative and quantitative research can be effectively employed by educational researchers. It is necessary that the researcher identify valid reasons for the choice of a particular style of research – these reasons should form the basis for the decision as to which methodological approach is deemed to be appropriate (Wall, 2001). This study will benefit most from a combination of both research methods. The quantitative element will enable data gathered from the questionnaire to be interpreted and analysed; the qualitative element – from semi-structured interviews – will be necessary to form conclusions in support of or in contradiction of the quantitative results. The combination of approaches will enable the researcher to gain deeper insight and to interpret the data more thoroughly than would have been possible through statistical analysis alone. 3.5The study sample Weaknesses according to other researchers Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience In order to meet the demands of the dominant culture and belief system, education in Saudi Arabia is segregated along gender lines. Accordingly, the difficulty of obtaining information from female teachers is based in a conception that female teachers ought not to interact too freely with males. As a consequence, the study sample was selected only from male teachers. This research was thus limited in its scope, apart from the absence of female respondents. The number of participants while large gives the responses of urban teachers. Riyadh is geographically extensive, and logistically it was not possible to cover all fourteen educational bureaus within the city, given the time constraints on the research process. Therefore, two of the educational bureaus were selected: The North Educational Bureau and The South Educational Bureau. Strengths Thus a sample representative of at least two geographical areas was selected to overcome the barrier of logistical concerns when covering a city as large as Riyadh. It was considered that the study sample should be drawn from a widely dispersed population, requiring that a multi-stage cluster sample be used. Thus, groupings of the units of the population to be sampled, rather than individuals within that sample, are considered the primary sampling unit. These subsequent groupings of the population units are referred to here as clusters (Bryman, 2008). Thus the sample is representative of each level of schooling, and of multiple levels of educations, as well as background. This could be suggested as representative of male teachers throughout Saudi Arabia, in that the demographic pattern in other communities could be tested to establish similarity. 280 questionnaires were distributed and 216 returned, enabling a response rate of 77% to be recorded. Two questionnaires were removed from the sample because they were incomplete. Therefore the actual size of the sample was 214 reducing the response rate to 76%. Identifiable characteristics of the study sample are shown in the table overleaf. Table 3.1 Characteristics of the respondents Characteristics n % Educational bureau South North Marital status Single Married Married with children Yes No Experience Less than 10 years 10-20 years 20-30 years More than 30 years Highest qualification Diploma Bachelor’s High Diploma Master’s PhD School sector Primary Intermediate High School Subjects taught Islamic Sciences Natural Sciences Literature Sports and Arts Computer Science 122 92 21 193 173 41 83 97 31 3 11 189 3 9 2 75 75 64 47 65 79 17 6 57 43 9.8 90.2 80.8 19.2 38.8 45.3 14.5 1.4 5.1 88.3 1.4 4.2 2 35 35 30 22 30.4 36.9 7.9 2.8 All teachers in the sample were male, as noted. Table 3.1 shows that 122 of them were attached to the Southern Educational Bureau in Riyadh (57 %), whereas 92 of them were from the Northern Educational Bureau (43 %). While this separation may not seem significant, it could indicate that similarity of responses could be discerned across districts in the city, pointing toward a common response to the national training programmes. 21 of the teachers in the sample were single (9.8%), whereas 193 were married (90.2%). Of the married teachers 173 had children (80.8%) whereas 41 of them did not (19.2%). Most of the teachers in the sample indicated that they had worked for less than 10 years (n= 83; 38.8%), whereas 97 teachers had worked for between 10 and 20 years (45.3%), 31 for between 20 and 30 years (14.5%) and 3 had been teachers for more than 30 years (1.4%). The majority were qualified with a bachelor’s (n= 189; 88.3). A further 11 had a diploma (5.1%). Master’s Degrees were held by 9 teachers (4.2%), and 3 held a high diploma (1.4%). 0.9% of the sampled teachers (two) had achieved PhDs. Regarding the subjects taught by the teachers in the sample, Islamic Sciences were taught by 47 teachers (22%), Natural Sciences by 65 teachers (30.4%), and Literature by 79 (36.9%). 17 teachers gave instruction in Sports and Arts (7.9%) and 6 taught Computer Science (2.8%). Proportionally, 35% (or 75) of the teachers in the sample were employed in primary schools; a similar number worked in intermediate schools; and 64 worked in high schools (29.9%). 3.6 Data Collection Two possibilities exist for the researcher – the collection of primary data, personally gathered, and secondary data, which is already existing data (Eriksson and Lundgren, 1999). Questionnaires and interviews yielded primary data for the purposes of this study. There is not extensive literature or data available regarding the internal attitudes and approaches of teachers in the Saudi system, thus the literature reviewed formed the reference point from which all secondary data for this study was sourced. The following section will discuss the use of both questionnaires and interviews in this study. Weaknesses according to other researchers Primary data is generally seen as effective for the purposes of a study of this nature, but some secondary reading is required – the literature review conducted before the completion of the study will have satisfied the requirements of most researchers. Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience As mentioned, some reservation about the “top-down” methodology employed in the collection of the data, and the process within schools could be reviewed. Strengths The questionnaires were collected with minimum logistical difficulty, and very few spoiled returns occurred – these were discarded as recorded in the results section of this paper. 3.6.1 The Questionnaire Weaknesses according to other researchers Questionnaires are a cost effective form of survey, easy to analyse, non-confrontational and a familiar format for participants to complete. They are a good way of obtaining data with reduced bias (Walonick, 2004). While questionnaires are a comparatively inexpensive way to discover the opinions of the study sample (May, 1993), they remain “a scientific tool” (Oppenheim, 1994, p.10) and the researcher must be sure that in their design, they meet the requirements of the specific aims and objectives of the study. Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience It was revealed in interviewing as a follow up to the completion of the questionnaires that even after adaptations informed by the pilot study, some respondents were not absolutely clear on the interpreted meaning of some questions. Strengths The questionnaire is possibly the most widely used data source in educational research – as many as half the research studies conducted in this field employ questionnaires as part of the data collection process by some estimates (Whitney, 1972). Their greatest use in is situations where direct (person-to-person) contact with respondents not possible or necessary. After considering the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires it was decided that collecting data through responses to questionnaires would be suitable for this study for these reasons: 1- Questionnaires are objective, as responses are gathered in a standardized way. 2- Collecting information using questionnaires is usually relatively rapid. 3- With questionnaires, information can be gathered from a large group. 4- Questionnaires were useful to accommodate teachers’ busy schedules. The questionnaire was built, informed by the various literature and studies related to this research. Five dimensions were included: Personal Information; Computer and Internet Skills; Teachers’ attitudes towards general training; Teachers’ attitudes towards face-to-face training; and Teachers’ attitudes towards distance training. Responses to 48 items were requested, linked to these areas of interest. In the responses to the questions, a 5-point Likert scale was used, due to its relative familiarity within education, and the possibility of relatively rapid completion by the subjects. 3.6.2 Development of the questionnaire and content Two principal sources were used in the development of the questionnaire. One of these was the researcher's own experience in the field of education in Riyadh as a teacher. The other was a review of the relevant literature. The questionnaire was developed with the aim of answering the research questions. According to the aims of this study and after consideration of teacher training systems and the mechanism of training programmes in Saudi Arabia, and a consequent revisiting of the literature review, the structure of the questionnaire was established. The first section gathers general information about the respondent, such as age, marital status, number of years of experience, qualifications, subject, level of school (primary, Intermediate or high school) and attendance of training programmes. Computer and Internet skills of the respondents are assessed in a second section. Three basic areas separate the information gained from responses to the balance of the questions: teachers’ attitudes towards training in general; teachers' attitudes towards participation in face-to-face training programmes; and teachers' feelings about distance training programmes. Weakness according to the researcher The content of the interviews could have encouraged a more reciprocal style of interview, with even less structure than was designed. This is however a retrospective view and was not anticipated by the researcher, due primarily to the time constraints experienced by teachers. 3.6.3 Validity of the questionnaire Weaknesses according to other researchers It is essential that a questionnaire is “valid” (Smith 1991 cited in Kumar 1996) and the researcher must consider to what extent the questionnaire has measured what the researcher wanted to measure. To assess the validity of the questionnaire employed in this research, the researcher discussed it with an expert (his supervisor). Guidance was sought and received and for example, the clarity of the paragraphs and the language was improved in the development stage, some items were excluded or added, necessary adjustments to structure were made. Gay and Airasian (2003) suggest that in a good questionnaire for research in the educational and social fields the questions should be easy to understand. The researcher took this into consideration, too, when designing the 48 questions to be assessed using the Likert scale (see appendix I). Weaknesses according to this researcher The only weakness was that even after redesign, review, language review and a pilot study some respondents still were not able to clearly understand a question or two. It was encouraging, however, that no discernible pattern emerges in confusion with particular questions – rather this was a random occurrence among very few respondents. Strengths The questionnaire was essentially developed in collaboration with experienced and accomplished people, who assisted to ensure its validity and effectiveness. Furthermore, the questionnaire was originally developed in English. The researcher then translated the questions into Arabic, as the questionnaire would be delivered in the latter language. Verbal equivalence between the Arabic and English versions was checked through back-translation to ensure the compatibility of the meanings of the two versions. To ensure the greatest clarity possible, slight adjustments were made in the light of this examination. 3.6.4The pilot study Weaknesses according to other researchers Pilot studies are recommended by a wide variety of researchers as precursors to conducting a study (see: Cresswell, 1998 & Walonick, 2004). Therefore it was decided to conduct a pilot study and few weaknesses were identified in the adoption of this process by other researchers. Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience The study enabled the researcher to modify and streamline the questionnaires, the questions forming the structure of the interviews, and a selected method of analysis. These were positive, rather than negative – thus the researcher contends that a pilot study cannot be considered a weakness in this case. While it was presumed that the reversal of scale would allow respondents to remain aware of their participation in the process, this was not necessary as the voluntary nature of the respondents does appear to have removed the reluctance they may have felt to complete more paperwork in their busy schedules. Their understanding of the scale – used widely in educational circles, generally – was advantageous, as few questions or objections to the format of the questionnaire merged from the follow-up interviews. Strengths Subsequent to the Pilot Study, minor modifications were made where necessary. Initially, the questionnaire contained 47 items. One item was added to Part One: Demographic Information. Therefore the final questionnaire had 48 items. Thus, the Pilot Study was deemed successful in meeting its objectives: 1- To discover if teachers had any problems in understanding instructions and individual items on the questionnaire. 2- To measure the time used to complete the questionnaire. 3- To delete irrelevant questions. 4- To reformulate any ambiguous questions. The pilot study was conducted with 27 teachers. A snowball sampling method was used for this purpose. Thus an initial respondent is approached and then the primary respondent assists in identifying other respondents to the researcher who may be willing to participate in the study. Respondents may also help in contacting other respondents (Lewis-Beck, Bryman and Liao, 2011). The small-scale pilot study was carried out to ensure that the questions were clear and formulated to obtain the responses desired to enable the research questions to be addressed. Thus measurement items below were developed: 3.6.5Measurement Items The questionnaire includes items to measure the following, as stated: 1- Teachers' computer and Internet skills 2- Teachers’ attitudes toward training programmes generally 3- Teachers’ attitudes toward face-to-face training programmes 4- Teachers’ attitudes towards distance training programmes Computer and Internet skills were assessed using six items. Responses were given on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 'never' (1) to 'very often' (5). Attitudes toward general training were evaluated using six items, also measured according to responses given on a five-point Likert scale. For five of the items, the order of the scale was reversed and responses ranged from 'strongly agree' (1) to 'strongly disagree' (5). Teachers’ attitudes toward face-to-face training were measured using seven items. A Likert scale similarly structured to that for the general training was employed. The teachers’ perceptions of distance training were measured on using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 'strongly disagree' (1) to 'strongly agree' (5), for 15 items. 3.6.6Questionnaire distribution Weaknesses according to other researchers Three principal means to distribute a questionnaire: Mailing, Self- administration and Group administration, are identified by Al-Sabban (1990) and Cohen and Manion (1994). Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience After due consideration, it was decided that the best method for this study was to have a letter from the Saudi Ministry of Education to introduce the author as a researcher and state the purpose of the research project. A letter was formulated by the Ministry, for the researcher to introduce himself to head teachers, and to ask for their assistance in facilitating the identification and cooperation of likely respondents. The intention was to ensure the appropriate authority to be able to conduct research and thus to ensure the cooperation of school leaders and teachers. On reflection, a more effective method of gaining cooperation would be to approach schools for permission, and then to interact with teachers personally. While the instruction of head teachers to complete a survey may ensure that the surveys are completed, the busy schedules of teachers may also introduce negativity from them. A voluntary completion of the questionnaire designed may result in less threat of bias with teachers being negative about training programmes because they are irritated by the time spent being forced to complete a survey. Strengths The researcher then contacted schools personally, introducing himself to head teachers. When head teachers agreed with the research project, they were happy to help him to distribute the questionnaires to the teachers. While the results do not bear this out, a bias may have resulted from this approach, as mentioned. The “top-down” approach could lead to some resentment of the process by respondents. At the cooperating schools, the questionnaires were distributed to the head teachers by the researcher himself. Included was a cover letter, explaining the purpose of the research. In this letter, confidentiality of respondents was guaranteed, and the identification of individuals made impossible by the lack of space on the questionnaire for names, designations etc. Questionnaires were collected from head teachers by the researcher as per arrangement, and the data prepared for analysis. 3.6.7Analysis of questionnaire data Following the collection and organisation of the data, a one-way ANOVA test was conducted to compare responses to items of groups of teachers with different demographic characteristics (e.g. age, experience, educational qualification, etc.). The one way ANOVA test is also known as single classification ANOVA test. It is the most widely used technique to compare means of groups of measurement data (McDonald, 2009). The ANOVA test was conducted using the statistical package SPSS version 18. 3.7 The semi-structured Interviews Weaknesses according to other researchers As data are collated, iterative type of interpretative analysis should be utilized, where emergent patterns in collected data materials are rendered in convergent and divergent focus of all research cases (Smith, Flowers, & Larkins, 2009, p. 79). The analysis should be multidimensional, each phenomenon being investigated at different angles to arrive at psychosocial concepts that best describe the experience and (implicit and explicit) response to training of these teachers. This researcher feels that more could have been done in the examination of information gained from the interview process had a less structured process, and a more discursive process been employed. Weaknesses according to the researcher’s experience As mentioned repeatedly, the gender-bias of the process, while unavoidable, still rankles. Unfortunately a number of respondents had to be left out – as mentioned the lack of internet skills did disqualify a number of teachers from the interview process. Strengths The strengths inherent in this process were the relative ease of the interview process, with the interviewees comfortable with the technology. The researcher's purpose in conducting interviews was to use them as an instrument to lend support to the questionnaire and help provide direct response opportunities to respondents, which would strengthen explanations of the study findings. Accordingly, semi-structured interviews were conducted in the light of the outcomes of the analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire, in order to clarify certain points, expand upon certain issues and develop more detailed insights. Nine interviews were conducted with members of the original male sample. For the interview questions, see Appendix. Online interviews using Skype.Online were most suitable, given the offshore nature of the sample, and given the expense, time factor and logistical considerations of conducting personal interviews in Saudi Arabia. Nonetheless, this technology has the advantage of allowing face-to-face contact with the interviewees, thus assuring the reliability of the interviews. A primary focus of the interviews was to arrive at an understanding of the issues in greater depth. Interviews can provide rich sources of data concerning the interviewees’ experiences, opinions, aspirations and feelings (May, 1993). Central to the success of this process, is the interviewer’s ability to put respondents at ease, and to assure them of the confidential nature of the process. Thus the interviewer’s style of interview, the questions formulated, and the timing of questions are vital aspects to ensure success – the interviewer has to ask “the right questions, in the right way, at the right time” (Briggs and Coleman, 2007, p.215). Zabar (1997) proposes that the interviewer must consciously acknowledge that the interview has an explicit goal and is not simply a social chat. Accordingly, before conducting the interviews, the researcher contacted the interviewees through email and by telephone to explain the purpose of the interviews and to establish appropriate and convenient times for them to be interviewed. In light of the busy schedules of the teachers concerned, finding convenient times was not always an easy task, but thanks to well-established relationships, the researcher succeeded in scheduling the nine interviews reported on. Another barrier proved to be the limited ability of most teachers to use the internet thus preventing a greater number of interviews. To overcome the risk of the limited sample of interviews, and to ensure that the interviews provided the required information, the nine teachers contacted were of different ages and experience. They also worked in different school sectors and taught different subjects. As wide a spectrum of the original sample as possible was sought. Again, though, the inevitable gender bias inherent in the study was of some concern. Each interview took approximately 30 minutes. Before starting the interviews, the researcher made sure that all the interviewees were aware of the purpose of the interviews and assured them of confidentiality. Moreover, the interviewees were informed of their choice to withdraw from the interview at any time should they wish to. The interviewees were asked the interview questions in sequence and permitted to give a full answer to each question. At the end of the interviews, the interviewees were asked if they had any questions regarding any aspect of the interview and they were thanked for their time and co-operation. 3.8Summary This chapter discussed the methodology used for answering the questions of the current research. The study population for the current study comprised male teachers in Riyadh city in Saudi Arabia from three stages of schooling: primary, middle and high schools. A multi-stage cluster sample was used to collect the required information for the research. Questionnaires were used to collect data for the study and semi-structured interviews were conducted in the light of the outcomes of the findings of the questionnaire data analysis in order to help clarify certain points, expand upon certain issues and develop more detailed insights. The chapter following discusses the analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaires. Boyd, C. (2001) “Phenomenology: The Method” in Munhall, P. (Ed.) Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, Third Edition Sudbury, MA, Jones and Bartlett: 93-122 Cresswell, J. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Thousand Oaks, Ca, Sage Smith, J.A., Flowers, P. & Larkins, M., (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research. Great Britain: MPG Books Group. Walonick, D.S. (1997-2004) Survival Statistics Stat Pac Inc. Available at http://www.statpac.com/surveys. Accessed December 18, 2011. Read More