Scholastic Methods in Education - Essay Example

Scholastic Methods in Education Literature Review The cornerstone to any educational model is undoubtedly the teacher. Education is viewed as an important aspect of a child’s life and is regarded as an imperative characteristic of the psychological development of the child (Lam, 2006). The scholastic environment, including factors like a supportive school atmosphere and the classroom context as well as language barriers, was determined to be directly related to teacher satisfaction (Lam, 2006; Bai, 1995). As our understanding of how children learn has grown, the many ways we teach children has also improved. The scholastic environment is intended to act as a cushion and protects the psychological well-being of children as they develop (Lam, 2006). Research has indicated that a teacher’s effect on their students is often the result of the students’ psychological responses to the teacher’s behaviour (Wei, Brok & Zhou, 2009). Studies have shown that children can begin learning from birth and as they age and grow, their ability to learn new ideas and concepts also grows (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). The reputation of a school and its influence on the life of the community invariably depend on the kind of teachers working in it. Of many dimensions, the following facets for measuring Teacher Job Satisfaction include: professionalism, teacher learning, innovation, and inter-personal relations (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010) Professionalism relates to job security and social prestige, molding young minds, appreciation from others, and the ability to help students resolve their problems (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010). Teacher learning refers to the availability of new technical knowledge for the teacher to help them cope with new situations, successfully managing the classes, student’s active participation in the classes, innovative techniques in teaching, and systematic plan of the work (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010). Innovation correlates with creativity, innovative techniques in teaching, participation in cultural activities, and co-curricular and social welfare activities (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010). Inter-personal relations are associated with relationships with colleagues, parents, students, higher authorities or any personnel relative to school (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010). Despite the establishment of these criterions, measuring the teacher’s level of job satisfaction remains a difficult task (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010). It is estimated that 157,000 teachers exit the field every year and an additional 232,000 others change schools in pursuit of better working conditions found in prestigious, higher-performing schools (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Combined, this represents approximately 12% of the teaching workforce, excluding the teachers that leave due to retirement (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). The exit of teachers from the profession and the movement of teachers away from low-performing schools are costly phenomena in regards to the loss students in the value of being taught by an experienced teacher, schools and districts must recruit and train their replacements, and the overall costs financial of teacher attrition (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Fiduciary repercussions can vary widely by district and may include signing bonuses, subject matter stipends, and other recruiting costs specific to the educational forum, totaling an estimated $7.34 billion to hire, recruit, and train the replacement teachers (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). This monetary estimation of the recruitment and hiring processes is in addition to the costs associated with lost productivity and human capital (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). The fiscal burden expressed does not include any the costs students bear when qualified teachers leave, which can have a negative effect on academic achievement (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Teacher quality is vital to student academic achievement and there is a general accord that the primary factor in improving student’s performance is the quality of the teacher, although the impact of a higher-quality teacher is particularly significant for low-performing and minority students (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Teacher turnover includes “teachers who transfer from one school to another within a district (movers) and those who leave the district or the profession entirely (leavers)” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). While retirement accounts for about 31.4% of the public school teachers who are leavers, this only accounts for about 16% of the total attrition rates (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Working conditions are primarily responsible for teacher turnover rates, as opposed to retirement, and includes factors like job dissatisfaction or the pursuit of another job, moving to get a better teaching assignment (38.1%), dissatisfaction with workplace conditions (32.7%), and dissatisfaction with the support received from administrators at their previous school (37.2%) (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Meticulous scrutiny of the available literature it has determined that teacher's job satisfaction can be measured mainly in two ways: through observation and interviews and use of tests including inventories and writing scales developed by some psychologists and educational researchers (Suryanarayana and Luciana, 2010) There are four primary elements that comprise teacher education, which are: enhancing the general educational background of teacher trainees, strengthening their knowledge and understanding of the subjects they teach, supporting pedagogy and an understanding of childhood learning, and the enhancement of concrete skills and competences (Perraton, 2010) The balance between these four elements varies widely. An early distance-education program in Kenya, for example, concentrated on raising teachers’ own educational background, seen as the highest priority (Perraton, 2010). The primary goal of the early childhood educator is to meet the child’s needs in “culturally and developmentally appropriate ways” (Morrison, 2009). Fostering a positive relationship with the family also helps the teacher develop the best and most effective individualized plan for the child’s care and education (Sorte, Daeschel, & Amador, 2011, p.7). These interactions create alternative perspectives by which the teacher can re-examine their approach to educating the child based on the child’s familial background and their cultural diversity (Norris, 2010). This is especially relevant to children that are English Language Learners (ELL), which are students that are attempting to make English their primary language (Chen, Kyle, & McIntyre, 2008). The current consensus is that the status of teachers in most countries, both developed and developing, has declined substantially within recent decades. However, the forces that are resulting in the ‘de-professionalisation’ of teachers are probably more pronounced in low-income developing countries (LICs) and many countries still do not have enough teachers. These include protracted economic and social crisis in many LICs, increasing diversification of the teaching force with increasing reliance on less well-educated and qualified teachers with lower job security, generally lower standards of teaching, feminisation, and dramatic declines in declines in the standard of living of teachers. Work motivation refers to the psychological processes that influence individual behaviour with respect to the attainment of workplace goals and tasks. The received wisdom among occupational psychologists is that ‘pay on its own does not increase motivation’. However, pecuniary motives are likely to be dominant among teachers in those LICs where pay and other material benefits are too low for individual and household survival needs to be met. Incentives for schools and teachers in the public education system to perform well are frequently weak due to ineffective incentives and sanctions. Very low pay forces large proportions of teachers to earn secondary income from private tutoring and other activities. Poor human resource management also seriously de-motivates employees. Teacher management at the national and sub-national levels is nothing short of chaotic in many countries. Where teachers pay large bribes to secure employment and desired postings, this may impact on job commitment and overall motivation. In these situations, teaching positions are little more than sinecures, which means that teachers do not feel accountable to school managements, parents or the wider community. Being posted to a rural school is likely to be de-motivating for most teachers. Increasing hours of work, larger class sizes, more subjects, and constantly changing curricula are cited as major de-motivators in many countries. What is expected from teachers (the ‘social contract’) is not pitched at a realistic level in many countries given material rewards, workloads, and work and living environments. In many countries, teachers are being asked to take on more responsibilities, including HIV/AIDS education, counselling, and community development (Bennell, 2004). Teacher quality is an issue in most countries. In some instances, the expansion needed in the teaching force is far beyond the capacity of traditional colleges. The supply of teachers is also adversely affected in countries where retention rates are low for newly trained teachers or where significant numbers of teachers are being lost through HIV-AIDS or in rural areas which have difficulties in recruiting and retaining teachers. Many teachers are untrained, underqualified, or teaching subjects in which they are not qualified or trained. In addition, teachers face a widening range of demands and roles. National governments, international organisations, and specific circumstances continually set new goals: gender parity by 2005 and universal basic education by 2015; inclusive education; education for democracy, peace and social cohesion; multi-grade teaching; increased accountability for achieving learning targets; the development of learners who are self-managing and independent, skilled in critical thinking and problem solving, equipped with life-skills; the preparation of learners who are competent for knowledge-based economies, capable in the use of information technology; and the expansion of teachers’ roles to include social work in communities where child-headed households and orphans are common as a result of HIV-AIDS (Perraton, Robinson, and Creed, 2001). However, it is important to note that some centres provide comprehensive care and education services that might include access to on-site health care professionals (medical, dental, counselling); transportation to and from the centre; extended hours of care; after-school programming for elementary aged children; family (adult) education programming; child care staff professional development training; academic tutoring; or developmental screening for children with special needs. School leaders remain of crucial importance for continued improvement of education. Given this importance, the paper then focuses on school leader recruitment and development and retention (or professional development). The major approaches employed by governments to ensure ongoing educational reforms were identified as old public administration (OPA), new public management (NPM) and organisational learning (OL). Inconsistencies within and between these approaches were shown create their own pressures on schools and their leaders. The worry is that the cumulative demands and resulting fragmentation and incoherence could undermine the capacity of schools. When considered en masse rather than separately, these myriad views may create unintended consequences that fuel the current problems of supply and quality in the principalship. In order to meet the heightened, multiple expectations now placed on schools, as well as to have engaged teachers, it is argued that schools need to become learning organisations, consciously and continuously pursuing quality improvement. Within schools that are learning organisations evolve new types of relationship between students, teachers and leaders based around a reasonably common set of characteristics that include a trusting and collaborative climate, a shared and monitored mission, taking initiatives and risks, and ongoing, relevant professional development. The key relationships in the ways school leaders strengthen teacher recruitment, development and retention were shown to include factors such as teacher satisfaction, school effectiveness, improvement, capacity, teacher leadership, distributive leadership, organisational learning, and development. School leaders can be a major influence on these school-level factors as well as help buffer against the excesses of the mounting and sometimes contradictory external pressures. A skilled and well-supported leadership team in schools can help foster a sense of ownership and purpose in the way that teachers approach their job. Conferring professional autonomy to teachers will enhance the attractiveness of the profession as a career choice and will improve the quality of the classroom teaching practice. Teachers who work together in a meaningful and purposeful ways have been found to be more likely to remain in the profession because they feel valued and supported in their work (Mulford, 2003). Being able to answer difficult questions and handle unexpected situations with respect is an important aspect of being an educator (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). This demonstrates the principles of effective communication, negotiation, and demonstrates the values being taught in a model that is real (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). The technology and multimedia available can be used as instructional technology and safe use of the internet can be taught to enhance safety (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). Instruction in citizenship through the educational process builds character and modelling these formative traits is important to producing productive citizens with quality skills that will enable them to get stable employment and enrich the economy (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). Understanding the nature of education and learning enables educators to become better teachers and this will also help the children become better students. It is important that teachers know and are able to communicate details regarding the nature and benefits of higher education so they are better equipped to provide guidance in this area. Helping children develop a love of learning and education is one of the main functionalities of teaching and it is vital that teachers know how to foster this quality in young children and adolescents. Explaining how various factors, like race, gender, and special needs affect the educational experience of the children involved makes educators able to address these issues and remove these circumstances as factors in their classrooms. Teachers also need to be aware of important issues, like faith and culture, and how they affect the student’s ability to learn and the effectiveness of the educator’s teaching style, allowing the teacher to adjust to compensate for the needs of the student. Explaining many of the factors that prevent children from finishing or continuing their education helps teachers form ways to overcome these barriers and provide their students with the best opportunities to succeed in the classroom and later in life. Teachers also need knowledge regarding details of the conditions prevalent in even the most prestigious universities so that they will be able to prepare their students to deal with these conditions without becoming discouraged and dropping out of school. Teachers must teach the curriculum, but they are also entrusted with the responsibility of preparing our youth to venture out into the world and become successful adults that contribute to society. It is important that teachers receive supportive training that will educate them about the need to first understand the complexity of the challenges facing today’s youth in order to teach them how to overcome these challenges and still succeed in getting an education and in whatever goals they set for themselves. This can be achieved through providing better access to a wide range of informative sources from which teachers can draw on to enhance their teaching strategies. Providing these details regarding the many problems within the primary and secondary educational systems gives professionals’ information to draw upon to fix these problems. Bogler (2001) studied 'The Influence of Leadership Style on Teacher Job Satisfaction'. This study disclosed the effects of principals' leadership style (transformational or transactional), principals' decision-making strategy (autocratic versus participative), and teachers' occupation perceptions on teacher satisfaction from the job (Bogler, 2001). More specifically, it attempts to find out how much of the variation in teachers' job satisfaction can be attributed to their perceptions of their occupation, as compared to their perceptions about their principals' leadership style and decision-making strategy. A quantitative questionnaire using Likert-type scales was administered to 930 teachers in Israeli schools, of whom 745 responded. Path analysis was used to explain teacher job satisfaction by the exogenous variables (Bogler, 2001). The most salient finding was that teachers' occupation perceptions strongly affected their satisfaction. Principals' transformational leadership affected teachers' satisfaction both directly and indirectly through their occupation perceptions. Implications of the study are discussed in relation to supervisors and principals, as well as to policy makers at the government level. Open and distance learning has been used for the initial training of teachers who enter programs with primary, secondary or tertiary qualifications (Perraton, 2010). Post-conflict countries have used open and distance learning to overcome teacher shortages (Perraton, 2010). Culturally responsive teaching is an important factor in helping young children learns to develop a positive sense of self (Sadker and Zittleman, 2009). Professional development must be found within practice to be the most effective, must be practical in designing and support their practice, and must encourage student participation (Morrison, 2009). High standards ensure that graduates will have an education or skill that will guarantee them a job, which is a progressive step for the economy (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). The key to effective teaching is to keep a low child/teacher ratio and do not separate the students. An ineffective teacher can lower a child’s desire to learn. Early childhood caregivers are in the unique position to build positive bridges of growth the child can go across for a lifetime. The best way a teacher can build positive social-emotional development and mental health is by understanding the way it develops in the early years of life, what influences it, and what makes up typical social and emotional development (Sorte, Daeschel, & Amador, 2011). A comprehensive curriculum will include physical education and seek to educate the whole child and addresses the child’s intellectual, emotional, physical, and social needs through instruction that combines cultural, scientific, social, historical, artistic, physical, technological, mathematical, linguistic, and emotional knowledge and experiences (Burgeson, 2004). As educational professionals, it is important to teach students how to exclude these negative images and present for them a model of professionalism by establishing formal boundaries (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). Being able to answer difficult questions and handle unexpected situations with respect is an important aspect of being an educator (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). This demonstrates the principles of effective communication, negotiation, and demonstrates the values being taught in a model that is real (Sharp, Ward, and Hankin, 2009). Generally speaking, teachers in any phase of their careers who have high academic credentials, such as being a graduate from a highly selective college or having high undergraduate grade point averages, are most likely to leave the teaching profession for reasons other than retirement if the occupational circumstances do not support the growth they are looking for (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). Those with strong education credentials, like certification or an undergraduate degree in education, are more likely to move between schools, but stay in the profession as long as they can secure a position that will contribute to their pedagogical knowledge and promote their personal development within their field (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008) References Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008. What Keeps Good Teachers in the Classroom? Understanding and Reducing Teacher Turnover. MetLife Foundation, [online] Available at: [Accessed 30 October 2011]. 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