Diet and Digestion Issues - Essay Example

Diet and Digestion TAQ 156 words) a) Teenage Male Athlete Day Breakfast: Whole grain toast, 2 eggs, orange juice Lunch: Turkey sandwich, apple, salad, water Supper: Pasta, salad, asparagus, grilled chicken, milk Day 2 Breakfast: Cheerios, skimmed milk, apple juice Lunch: PB&J sandwich, yoghurt, apple Supper: Salad, lasagna, broccoli, passion juice Day 3 Breakfast: Oatmeal, banana, nuts Lunch: Turkey sandwich, orange juice Supper: Salad, grilled chicken, brown rice, carrot juice Soon to be Mother in her 30s Day 1 Breakfast: Whole wheat muffin, milk Lunch: beef barbeque sandwich, spinach salad Supper: sweet potato soup, grilled chicken, milk Day 2 Breakfast: oatmeal, whole wheat bread, grapefruit, milk Lunch: white bean salad, broccoli bacon quiche Supper: rice, chicken, steamed carrots, milk Day 3 Breakfast: cheese sandwich, milk Lunch: corn bread, chicken, corn chili Supper: steamed asparagus, brown rice, fish Elderly male hospital patient Day 1: Breakfast: orange, low-fat milk, whole wheat toast Lunch: cottage cheese, fruit salad, fortified soya beverage Supper: roast chicken, baked potato, low-fat yoghurt Day 2 Breakfast: banana, low fat milk, whole wheat toast Lunch: fortified soya drink, whole wheat toast Supper: Steamed fish, low-fat yoghurt Day 3 Breakfast: orange juice, whole wheat toast Lunch: whole wheat bread, boiled eggs, low-fat milk Supper: tuna fish, baked potato, peach b) (466 words) Teen athletes typically require more calories than other active teens, requiring at least 3,000 to 4,000 calories every day. The most important source of energy for the male teenage athlete is carbohydrates, which necessitates the inclusion of carbohydrate sources in each meal. When consuming a diet with 3,000 calories, at least 45-65% of all calories must be from carbohydrates (Insel et al., 2010: p45). Some of the healthy sources of carbohydrates in this case include whole grain cereals and bread, brown rice, pasta, milk, and fruits/fruit juices. It is also essential that the teenage male athlete have at least 70-102g of proteins a day from high protein sources like fish, lean meats, eggs, poultry, and dairy products. At least 25-35% of all daily calories should be sourced from fats, including nuts, fish oils, and vegetable oils used to cook (Insel et al, 2010: p45). Finally, vitamins and minerals are important, including B vitamins, zinc, iron, and calcium. Good nutrition is critically important for the pregnant woman in her 30s and it is recommended that a pregnant woman should consume at least 300 calories more than normal requirements (Otten et al, 2013: p32). It is especially important to eat complex carbohydrates like vegetable/vegetable salads, pastas, and whole grain breads. Proteins are also important, including dairy products, meat, and fish, which are factored into each meal. Vegetables are also important as they provide vitamins, calories, minerals, fibers, and anti-oxidants. Yellow and green vegetables are included in the meal plan because they contain substantial amounts of trace minerals, calcium, Vitamin B6, folic acid, riboflavin, vitamin E, vitamin A, and fiber. At least five servings a day are recommended for legumes and grains as they provide trace minerals like magnesium and zinc, as well as B vitamins. 20-53g of fiber is also recommended to avoid hemorrhoids and constipation (Otten et al, 2013: p33). An elderly male patient will require microelements in varying amounts, although there are no specific recommendations except in the case of Vitamin D that is required in higher amounts for bone strengthening. Energy requirements decline with age, especially when activity is restricted by illness and such a man need ~2,100 kilocalories a day (Otten et al, 2013: p47). Mineral, vitamin, and protein requirements are largely unchanged, meaning that nutrient-dense foods like fish, eggs, dairy products, bread, vegetables, and fruits/fruit juices were included. Protein density of the foods should also increase with ~53.3 kilocalories of proteins a day, including dairy products, lean meat, and eggs (Otten et al, 2013: p54). Micronutrients like vitamin D in eggs are important for calcium to be absorbed and to strengthen bones. Vitamin C is also crucial for maintenance of healthy tissue and good wound healing, all of which are important in the elderly patient and were sourced from vegetables and fruits/fruit juices. References Insel, P. M., Turner, R. E., & Ross, D. (2010). Nutrition. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Otten, J. J., Hellwig, J. P., & Meyers, L. D. (2013). DRI, dietary reference intakes: The essential guide to nutrient requirements. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press. TAQ 2 (512 words) Type 2 diabetes occurs as a result of inability of the pancreas to make sufficient insulin, as well as when body cells acquire insulin resistance. The risk of diabetes type-2 development increases due to dietary issues and obesity, of which the latter is linked with diabetes type-2 because fat induces low-grade and mild inflammation of the body (Shils & Shike, 2011: p28). In addition, excess abdominal fat from too much fat and carbohydrates in the diet alters how the body responds to insulin and causes insulin resistance. As a result, the body cells do not respond to insulin, resulting to increased levels of blood sugar. Over-consumption of the wrong foods also increased type-2 diabetes risk. Consuming refined, calorie-dense beverages and foods like fruit juices and sodas, as well as too little whole grains, vegetables, and raw fruits significantly increases type-2 diabetes risk. Diets that are especially high in animal fat and protein, processed carbohydrates, refined sugars, and trans-fatty acids, coupled with deficiency in complex carbohydrates and fiber substantially increases type-2 diabetes risk (Shils & Shike, 2011: p28). Arthrosclerosis, on the other hand, is a disorder of the blood arteries in which fatty deposits collect on the inner walls, causing narrowing of the arteries and blood-flow obstruction. Cholesterol and high-fat diets are known to accelerate the process of narrowing and hardening of the arteries (Shils & Shike, 2011: p42). Cholesterol is essential for hormone production, cell membrane structure, and nerve endings protection and exists in two forms; LDL and HDL. Foods that are high in saturated fats result in increased LDL, also referred to as bad cholesterol. As LDL transport cholesterol to the cells from the liver, excess cholesterol may build up in the walls of the arteries. Over time, these fatty deposits in the LDL reduce blood flow through the arteries. Some of the foods that are high in saturated fat are cakes, biscuits, bacon, cream, butter, processed meat, and sausages (Shils & Shike, 2011: p43). Excessive drinking of alcohol and obesity are also responsible for increased levels of LDL in the body. Finally, rickets is a disease characterized by deficient bone mineralization because of impaired or deficient metabolism of calcium, phosphorous, and especially vitamin D, which could lead to deformity and fractures (Juettner, 2011: p51). Vitamin D is critical for the proper absorption of calcium from the GIT with UV sunlight allowing skin cells to activate vitamin D, enabling calcium absorption. Dietary calcium absorption is hampered in absence of vitamin D, leading to hypocalcaemia and, therefore, neuro-muscular problems and dental and skeletal deformities. The main sources of vitamin D are sunlight, which leads to the activation of vitamin D in the body, and foods like fortified breakfast cereal, eggs, and oily fish. Calcium deficiency is also implicated in rickets and can be sourced from dairy products like yoghurt, cheese, and milk, as well as green vegetables like cabbage and broccoli. Over time as calcium and/or vitamin D become deficient, especially in children where bone formation is still ongoing, rickets results, while adults suffer from osteomalacia or soft bones (Juettner, 2011: p52). References Juettner, F. B. (2011). Diet and disease. Detroit: Lucent Books. Shils, M. E., & Shike, M. (2011). Modern nutrition in health and disease. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. TAQ 3 a) (100 words) Digestion is the process through which food is broken down to smaller components like micro-nutrients and amino acids, which enables their absorption into the bloodstream, as well as assimilation into the tissues and cells for metabolism and energy production (Prior, 2012: p39). Ingested food is not in a form that can be used for nourishment by the body, meaning it must be changed to smaller nutrient molecules that can be absorbed through pores in the GIT and transported by the blood and lymph. If the food is not broken down to essential nutrients like glucose and amino acids, malabsorption occurs. b) (275 words) Organ/Body Part Process Importance Mouth/Buccal Cavity The teeth bite off chunks of food that can fit in the moth The food is chewed into smaller bits and lubricated by saliva Makes food easier to swallow Increases the surface area for food for further digestion to take place (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p62). Esophagus Moves food along by peristalsis Peristalsis is important in changing solid food tochyme needed to squeeze it through the gut (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p62) Increases surface area of food for further digestion Stomach Its muscles expand temporarily to store food The stomach muscles also initiate mixing and churning action of the stomach Decreases particle size of food to allow it pass through pyloric sphincter into duodenum (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p63) Enables the mixing of food with HCL and other gastric secretions important for digestion Small Intestine Emulsification of fats by bile salts from the liver Peristalsis moves along food, while grinding and mixing it with pancreatic secretions Emulsification of fats increases their surface area for further digestion (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p63) Mixing of food with pancreatic secretions also enables further digestion of the food Large Intestine Muscle contractions and relaxation that take longer than those in the esophagus, stomach, and small intestines Production of mucus to lubricate contents Helps in temporarily storing and concentrating residues until defecation occurs (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p63) Mucus also enables passage of the waste products to the rectum and anus. Anus Relaxation and contraction of external and internal sphincter muscles Controls the release and expulsion of feces from the gut (Lentle & Janssen, 2011; p64) c) (346 words) Name of Digestive Juice Site of production Enzymes in Digestive Juice Functions Saliva Salivary glands in the mouth Salivary amylase Salivary lipase Lysozyme Amylase is capable of breaking starch down to maltose, dextrin and other simpler sugars. Still, only 30% of starch is digested in the mouth by saliva (Frost, 2011; p40) Lipase begins the process of fat digestion, especially in infants for whom pancreatic lipase is still developing Lysozyme inhibits bacterial growth in the mouth Gastric Juice Gastric glands in the stomach Rennin Pepsin Gelatinase Amylase Lipase Rennin digests proteins found solely in milk into peptides (Frost, 2011; p40) Pepsin digests other food proteins to smaller peptides Gelatinase digests type IV and V collagen, as well as type I and II gelatin mainly found in meat (Frost, 2011; p40) Amylase continues starch digestion Lipase digests butter fat into glycerol and fatty acids Pancreatic Juice Pancreas into the small intestines Trypsin Chymotrypsin Lipase Carboxypeptidase Amylase Phospholipase Elastase Nucleases (RNAase and DNAase) Trypsin breaks proteins down to constituent amino acids Chymotrypsin breaks proteins down to their constituent aromatic amino acids (Frost, 2011; p42) Carboxypeptidase cleaves terminal amino acids from their parent proteins Elastase degrades elastin proteins (Frost, 2011; p42) Lipase degrades triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids Nucleases degrade nucleic acids like RNA and DNA (Frost, 2011; p42) Amylase breaks glycogen and starch to constituent simple sugars Phospholipase hydrolyzes phospholipids to fatty acids Intestinal Juice Glands in walls of the small intestines Enterokinase Erepsin Maltase Dextrinase Lactase Nucleosidases Phosphatases Enterokinase activates the inactive trypsinogen into trypsin Erepsin completes protein digestion by breaking down polypeptides into amino acids (Frost, 2011; p43) Dextrinase hydrolyzes dextrins into smaller oligosaccharides Maltase catalyzes hydrolysis of maltose to glucose Lactase catalyzes hydrolysis of lactose to galactose and glucose Nucleosidases catalyze nucleotides hydrolysis to nitrogenous bases and ribose sugar (Frost, 2011; p43) Phosphatases catalyze phosphorylated nutrient hydrolysis to release phosphate ions References Frost, H. (2011). The digestive system. Mankato, Minn: Pebble Books. Prior, J. O. (2012). The digestive system. Huntington Beach, CA: Teacher Created Materials. Lentle, R., & Janssen, P. W. M. (2011). The physical processes of digestion. New York: Springer. TAQ 4 (440 words) Digestive System Organ Functions 1. Mouth/Buccal Cavity Initiates digestion by breaking food into smaller particles for access by digestive enzymes and ease of swallowing, begins digestion of starch, and lubricates food particles (Glass: p29) 2. Liver Processes nutrients from the small intestine, creating chemicals required for bodily functions, secretes bile for emulsification and digestion of fats, and detoxifies toxins and drugs from the gut (Glass: p29) 3. Ascending Colon Carries feces from the cecum as bacteria digest fecal matter to release vitamins, while water, vitamins, and nutrients are absorbed from the feces into the blood (Berger & Berger, 2011: p58) 4. Caecum Absorbs salts and fluids remaining from the small intestines, while also mixing remaining matter with mucus for lubrication (Glass: p30). Muscle tissue also produces kneading and churning motions to propel contents forward. 5. Appendix Has no known function in humans 6. Rectum Temporarily stores fecal matter prior to elimination from the body via the anus during bowel movements (Glass: p31) 7. Esophagus Receives food from the buccal cavity after swallowing and, via the process of peristalsis, delivers it to the stomach in the form of bolus (Berger & Berger, 2011: p56). 8. Stomach Holds swallowed food as it is mixed with gastric juices and enzymes, digests proteins and starch, and absorbs alcohol and some drugs (Berger & Berger, 2011: p56). Food is converted into semi-liquid chyme by the stomach muscles’ contraction and relaxation 9. Duodenum Responsible for food breakdown by pancreatic enzymes, while Brunner’s glands secrete mucus to lubricate the food. It also regulates stomach emptying through secretin and cholecystokinin in response to fatty and acidic stimuli (Glass: p31). This also results in release of bile by the liver and pancreatic juice into the duodenum. 10. Transverse Colon Water is removed from the contents and feces formed in a process that involves bacteria and fermentation (Berger & Berger, 2011: p57). Also involved in the absorption of salts and water 11. Jejunum Its lining is specialized for absorption of small particles of nutrients digested in the duodenum, which pass to the liver through hepatic portal vein (Glass: p31). Digested fats enter the lymphatic system via lacteals, while magnesium is also absorbed here. 12. Descending Colon Stores waste products until they are solid enough to be expelled from the body through bowel movements. Stool is increasingly solidified as it moves along this organ as water is absorbed (Berger & Berger, 2011: p58). 13. Ileum Mainly absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12, and remnants of digestion not absorbed in the jejunum. It is also responsible for the final digestion stages of carbohydrates and proteins and their absorption. Its villi are capillary-dense and absorb glucose and amino acids for transport to the liver, while lacteals absorb glycerol and fatty acids (Berger & Berger, 2011: p58). References Berger, M., & Berger, G. (2011). Digestion. New York: Scholastic. Glass, S. (2004). The digestive system. Logan, Iowa: Perfection Learning. TAQ 5 (330 words) Figure 1: Layers of the Stomach (pediatricgist.cancer.gov, 2012) The stomach has several distinct layers as per figure 1; serosa, muscularis, sub-mucosa, and mucosa layers. The mucosa consists of the mucus membrane and has gastric pits that produce gastric juices and make this layer much thicker than in small and large intestines, while mucus cells produce mucus to protect the stomach lining (Zielinski, 2012: p44). The sub-mucosa layer contains nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The muscularis layer has 3 layers of smooth muscle tissue that enable the stomach to contract, mixing food. Finally, the serosa has a slippery, smooth surface to reduce friction with other organs as the stomach expands and contracts (Zielinski, 2012: p44). Figure 2: Layers of the Small Intestine (cancer.org, 2014) The small intestine also has four tissue layers. However, its mucosa is specialized for absorption through villi projections in its epithelial tissue as seen in figure 2. The sub-mucosa layer provides blood vessels and nervous tissue like in the stomach, but also has lymphatic vessels to absorb digested fats (Zielinski, 2012: p46). Several smooth muscle layers make up the muscularis layer for peristalsis to propel chyme forward. However, circular muscles in this layer of the small intestines closes of some sections of the organ to enable continuous movement and grinding of chyme in the particular section (Zielinski, 2012: p47). Finally, the serosa is more permeable than it is in the stomach in order to allow absorption of digested nutrients. Figure 3: Layers of the large Intestine (pennmedicine.org, 2012) Similarly, the large intestines also have four layers. As seen in figure 3, the mucosa in the large intestines has no villi like the small intestines and is smooth unlike the stomach. Instead, it has numerous semiliunar folds corresponding to haustra intervals (Simon, 2012: p28). The sub-mucosa is innervated and vascularized, although it has no lymphatic vessels like the small intestines and only serves to nourish the organ and initiate contractions during bowel movements. In the muscularis layer, the small intestines have internal circular and external longitudinal layers (Simon, 2012: p28). Finally, the serosa is similar to that in small intestines and the stomach. References cancer.org. (2014, April 30). Small Intestine Cancer . Retrieved September 18, 2014, from American Cancer Society: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/smallintestinecancer/detailedguide/small-intestine-cancer-staging pediatricgist.cancer.gov. (2012). The Gastrointestinal System. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from National Cancer Institute: http://www.pediatricgist.cancer.gov/Source/Clinical/ClinicalArticle1.aspx pennmedicine.org. (2012, November 17). Structure of the colon. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from Penn Medicine: http://www.pennmedicine.org/encyclopedia/em_PrintImage.aspx?gcid=19218&ptid=2 Simon, S. (2012). Guts: Our digestive system. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Zielinski, S. (2012). Digestion and digestive system. Delhi: University Publications. Read More